BALANCE OF POWER: THE 1990 EDITION (REFERENCE PAGE)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Instructions for Amiga Users:

To start the program, first boot your machine with Kickstart 1.2. At the
Workbench screen, insert the Balance of Power disk in your internal drive.
The program will load at that point. When the title screen for Balance of
Power: The 1990 Edition comes up, click on the button for "New Game."

If you've never played Balance of Power, turn to the instructions in the
"Quick Walkthrough" page 7 of the manual to get an idea of the sequence of
play in the game.

For experienced Balance of Power players, the Options screen now contains a
new fourth level of play, "Multipolar." It is the most difficult level, and
incorporates all the new features of the new version.

NOTE: Due to the size of the expanded new database in this version of
Balance of Power, you will experience some wait time as the computer loads
the program. You can also expect a wait at the end of each year of play,
when you choose "Next Turn," since the computer must recompute all data for
all 80 countries in the game.

For your convenience, this program does not have on-disk copy protection,
but you will need your manual briefly each time you play the game. Be sure
to store the manual in a safe place.

We hope you enjoy playing Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition.

  (end of page)



                      B A L A N C E    O F    P O W E R
                      ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

                                 THE 1990 EDITION
                                 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

August, 1988

My Dear Aspiring Geopolitician,

   I have always resisted suggestions that I create sequels or second
editions to any of my games. But the demand for a new edition of Balance of
Power has been loud, determined and insistent. At trade shows, in customer
feedback cards, and in letters, thousands of people have made it clear that
they want a new edition. After two years of such pressure, I have finally
caved in. Here it is.

   This new edition of Balance of Power has a variety of new features.
First and foremost is multipolarity. This brings along with it several
secondary features, such as the minor country crisis and wars between 
minor countries. The new advisory function makes it easier to figure your 
way through crises. I have added more countries and a provision for  trade
policy. The database has been updated to early 1988. There is  additional
reference material in the background section. I have rewritten  large
portions of the code to make it run faster and more accurately, and  in the
process I uncovered and gleefully squashed two tiny bugs in the  original
version that nobody had reported.

   Finally, an editorial comment. I am especially gratified by the effect
of Balance of Power on the games industry. The common wisdom had always
been that games are bought only by adolescents who are interested  in fast
action, intense graphics, and loud sounds. But the success of  Balance of
Power and games like it is changing the marketplace. Because  of you,
publishers are now bringing more advanced games to the dealers'  shelves.
For that you have my profound thanks. 

   Thanks also for the royalties - it's especially nice to be able to make
a living in this crazy business!

                                   Chris Crawford

Table of Contents
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Features of This Edition --------------------------------------------  5

Quick Walkthrough ---------------------------------------------------  7

Your First Real Game of Balance of Power ---------------------------- 11

Mastering the Beginning Level Game ---------------------------------- 23

The Intermediate Level Game ----------------------------------------- 29

The Expert Level Game ----------------------------------------------- 35

Multipolar Level ---------------------------------------------------- 43

Reference to Commands ----------------------------------------------- 49

Appendices  

How Realistic is the Game ? ----------------------------------------- 75

Models Used in the Simulation --------------------------------------- 79

Acknowledgements ---------------------------------------------------- 87

Bibliography -------------------------------------------------------- 89

[page 5]

Features of Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
This is the second edition of Balance of Power. It boasts many
improvements over the first edition of the game. This version
requires 512K of RAM, and takes advantage of the additional RAM 
to speed up many processes, improving the responsiveness of 
the game. It has 80 countries instead of 62; additional data in the
Background section; a new "Crisis Advisory" feature to help the
player in a crisis; updated information on all the countries of the
world; and some refinements in the internal algorithms. The most
important improvement, though, is the addition of a new fourth
level, called "Multipolar." This is the single most requested feature 
by owners of the first edition, and now it's in Balance of Power:
The 1990 Edition. In this level, actions by all countries of the world 
impact the course of the game, making it richer and more chal-
lenging. To keep track of the more complex world of the multipolar 
level game, there are additional displays showing the state of all 
aid and troops going into a country and out of a country. The 
player is allowed to make use of the trade weapon in this level.
Minor countries are allowed to fight wars. Finally, there is now a
"minor country crisis" that allows the player to discourage minor
countries from pursuing unwise policies.

Many customers have complained about copy protection, espe-
cially those customers with hard disks. Recognizing the legitimacy 
of these complaints, we have adopted an alternative form of theft 
protection that makes it possible for you to make copies or install 
the program on your hard disk with no constraints.

Note: Macintosh screens are pictured throughout this manual.
Macintosh is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc.

[page 6]

(BLANK)

[page 7]

Quick Walkthrough 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 
Insert the disk into your computer. The first thing 
you will see after you double-click the Balance of 
Power icon is the title screen. Click the NEW GAME button and 
you will encounter the OPTIONS screen. For now, just click the 
START GAME button and after a brief wait the game will be ready 
to play.

Note: Early in the game you will be presented with a dialog box
demanding to know if your papers are in order. This is an alterna-
tive form of copy protection that users have indicated is preferable 
to conventional forms of copy protection. You will need to refer to 
your manual to answer the challenge. Note that the program gives 
you a hint by telling you the first letter of the word you need. That 
should help eliminate any confusion. Type in the answer and click 
on the "Proceed" button.

You will see a map of the world. The year is 1989. The countries of
the world will be shaded to indicate the occurrence of major 
events within each. Click on the United States of America; note 

[page 8]

that it turns black. Pull down the menu labelled "Relations." The
first item on this menu is "Diplomatic Relationships." Select this
item; the computer will shade each country to show its diplomatic
relationship to the United States. Check out the status of relations
with Nicaragua, the middle country of the six Central American
countries. Note that the shading indicates a cool or hostile rela-
tionship with the USA.

You'll teach them! Place the cursor on Nicaragua and click the 
mouse button. That country will turn black and its name will appear 
at the top of the map. You have selected Nicaragua for further
consideration. Pull down the menu labelled "Make Policies."

This is the menu from which you make decisions about the world.
Select the item labelled "Aid to Insurgents." A window will appear
with a variety of policy options, ranging from no aid to a very large 
amount of aid.

[page 9]

Click the greatest possible amount of aid and click the "Enact"
button. You have just made a Presidential decision-you are ship-
ping lots of weapons to the Contras.

Let's just say that this is all you will do for now. Note your current 
score (0) at the bottom of the screen. Go to the "Game" menu and 
select the "Next Turn" item.

[page 10]

The computer will figure the behavior of the world for one year;
this may take as long as a minute. The USSR may well take 
exception to your weapons shipments to the rebels in that war-
torn country; if so, it may start a crisis over your action. In a crisis,
you always have two options: escalate (reject Soviet objection) or
back down. If you escalate, you bring the world closer to war; if
either side escalates to DefCon1, a nuclear war starts and you 
lose the game. If you back down, your policy is reversed and you 
lose prestige. (See Superpower Crisis under Reference to Com-
mands, later in the manual.)

When the cursor reverts to its familiar arrow shape, the computer
has finished calculating the behavior of the world and you can
resume play. It is now 1990. Check your score as reported on the
lower edge of the screen. If you have done well, your geopolitical
prestige will be higher than that of the USSR. If your relative score 
is lower, you are losing. The game continues for eight years. If at 
the end of that period you and your opponent have managed to
avoid nuclear confrontation, the side with the highest prestige
score wins.

There are many other options in the various menus that will give 
you more information on the state of the world. Weaken your 
enemies, support your friends-that's all it takes. Play around for a 
while and then read the Beginning Level manual before starting 
your first real game of Balance of Power:The 1990 Edition.

[page 11]

Your First Real Game 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 
You have goofed around with the game for a while and now you 
are ready to really give it a go. Let's begin. Start up a new game; 
in the OPTIONS screen, leave everything as it is: Beginner Level,
Single Player, with you as the American President.

Goal -

Your goal in this game is to increase your geopolitical prestige 
and weaken the geopolitical prestige of the Soviet Union. The 
concept of geopolitical prestige is not difficult to understand. It's 
much like popularity. You want to be popular with the other nations
of the world. The twist is, you want to be popular with the coun-
tries that count the most. In the world of geopolitics, countries that 
count are the countries that are militarily powerful. Thus, your goal 
is to accumulate lots of powerful friends, and insure that your 
enemies are few and weak.

Although prestige is akin to "geopolitical popularity," there is much 
more at stake here than a simple beauty contest. The nations of
the world are sovereign states; they do whatever they choose to 
do. Your country's ability to influence the course of events is 
directly related to its prestige. Short of direct conquest or the 
exercise of naked military power, prestige is the closest a country 
can get to true international power.

Of course, you must avoid a nuclear war while pursuing prestige. 
If nuclear war breaks out, you lose, no matter how well you were 
doing before everything was reduced to ashes.

Overall Approach -

How do you get a country to like you? There are two ways: you 
can do nice things for it in an effort to convince it to like you, or 
you can wipe the bastards out. The strategy you pursue depends 
on your relationship with the country. If relations are relatively 
good, you should try to buy their sympathies; if the government 
seems unalterably opposed to you, you should with great regret 
seek to eliminate it.

[page 12]

Every nation of the world is blessed with its very own insurgency.
From the African National Congress in South Africa to ZAPU in
Zimbabwe, from the Canary Islands Liberation Front to the 
Sendero Luminoso ("Shining Path"), the wonderful world of insur-
gency spans the spectrum of political causes. It matters not what
the cause is; the primary significance of a local insurgency is that
it is an excellent vehicle for pursuing larger and more important
superpower goals. By supporting a local insurgency, a super-
power can destroy an unfriendly government and replace it with a 
grateful, friendly, (and presumably malleable) government. This is 
the primary strategy of the Beginner Level game.

Complicating this are the nuclear arsenals of the two superpow-
ers. The fact that we can annihilate each other means that every 
action we take requires the tacit approval, or at least the acquies-
cence,of the USSR. If either wide does something that angers the 
other, a crisis can start that can lead straight into nuclear war.

Offensive Strategy -

Your strategy in this game has two faces: offensive and defensive.
On the offensive side, you must identify and topple those regimes
unfriendly to your country. There are two constraints on your
actions. First, some countries are much too strong to be over-
thrown by insurgents. For example, the government of China is far
too strong to be overthrown by insurgency; funding insurgency 
there is a waste of money. Second, you dare not attempt to topple 
regimes closely tied to the Soviet Union. For example, Poland may 
be vulnerable because of the problems between Solidarity and 
the government. Yet you dare not foment trouble in Poland, for 
Poland is a member of the Warsaw Pact and a close ally of the 
Soviet Union. Any attempt to overthrow the government of Poland 
would undoubtedly generate an enraged response from the USSR.

Identifying Insurgencies - 
------------------------ 
There are three types of insurgents: terrorists, guerrillas, and
rebels. A powerful and stable government has none of these.
Terrorists are the weakest form of insurgents. If the terrorists are
successful and grow in power, they become guerrillas and initiate 
a guerrilla war. If the guerrillas grow in power, they start a civil war.
Then they are called rebels.

These seemingly semantic issues are crucial to the game. A 
special map ("Insurgency" - the fourth entry on the "Countries" 
menu) presents the level of insurgency for each country of 
the world.

[page 13]

By consulting this map, you can identify those insurgencies that
are in the crucial stage of civil war. These insurgencies are the
ones most deserving of your attention. Guerrilla wars deserve 
some attention, especially if the country in question is important.

Helping Insurgents - 
------------------ 
Once you have identified a likely candidate for subversion, you
have two weapons: Aid to Insurgents and Intervene for Rebels.
These can be found on the "Make Policies" menu. You can ship 
Aid to Insurgents only if there are insurgents to receive that aid:
terrorists, guerrillas, or rebels. The amount of aid you can ship
depends on the level of insurgency. Terrorists can't use that much
money-a few guns, a little dynamite is all they need to be happy.
Guerrillas need more elaborate accoutrements - more guns, lots 
of ammunition, rockets, mines, and so forth. Rebels are the most
demanding insurgents and need the most expensive equipment -
tanks, artillery, and other weapons that the big boys use.

A second constraint is even more severe. A superpower can only 
ship weapons to a country through contiguous allies in which it 
has stationed troops. For example, you must have troops in Hon-
duras, El Salvador, or Costa Rica to ship weapons to the contras 
in Nicaragua. The amount of weapons that can be shipped is 
dependent on the number of troops so stationed. After all, why

[page 14]

should a small country risk all the trouble associated with weap-
ons shipments if it doesn't have guarantees of protection?
However, a superpower can always leak a small amount of weap-
onry into any country in the world; borders aren't airtight. For the
purposes of this game, each island nation is considered to be
contiguous with its nearest neighbor.

The most sincere form os assistance is direct intervention. This
means that you are sending part of your own army into that 
country to help the rebels overthrow the government. You are 
limited in much the same way as with military aid to insurgencies. 
A superpower must have troops in a contiguous country before it 
can send troops to intervene for the rebels in a civil war; the 
number of troops that can intervene is always less than or equal 
to the number of troops stationed in the contiguous country. 
However, both sides have the equivalent of 5,000 marines that can 
be sent anywhere in the globe in violation of the contiguity 
requirement.

When you do send such troops, you must realize that your Ameri-
can boys will end up fighting anybody else out there. If there are
Soviet boys fighting on the side of the government and American
boys fighting on the side of the rebels, then you're going to get
American boys shipped home with Russian bullets in them, and 
vice versa. Such a direct confrontation is not conducive to world
peace. The world diplomatic climate will disintegrate very quickly
if this happens, so be careful about where you send in the
Marines.

Once you enter a policy, it remains in place until is revoked. Thus, 
if you send troops somewhere, they will stay there until you recall 
them or they are ejected by their host. If you send military aid, it 
will be automatically renewed each year. Thus, if you choose to 
send $10 million in aid, an additional $10 million will be sent every 
year until you change the policy.

Defensive Strategy -

The defensive side of your game requires you to protect your
friends from insurgency. There are two direct ways to do this: Aid
to Government and Intervene for Government. These directly cor-
respond to the options available for insurgencies, except of course 
that the action is taken in favor of the government. The restrictions 
on this action are somewhat different. For example, insurgents are 

[page 15]

eager to take all the weaponry they can handle. Not so a govern-
ment. Every government in the world knows that help from
superpowers always seems to come with sticky strings attached.
Most governments are understandably reluctant to accept an
unseemly amount of aid from a superpower. This reluctance is
directly related to the degree of enmity between the two nations.
Thus, that fun-loving Colonel Khaddafy of Libya would not accept
your generous offer of military assistance - he would undoubtedly
suspect some fiendish infidel subterfuge. On the other hand, West
Germany has already cast its lot with the United States and would
have no reservations about accepting scads of military aid from
the USA. Nations are even more sensitive about allowing you to
send troops onto their soil. This reluctance will express itself in
the graying out of the more ambitious policy options in the policy
window. You may want to give 100 million dollars to the govern-
ment, but if the option is grayed out, you can't do it.

By the way, there is another restriction on your spending habits:
lack of money. You do not have an infinite supply of troops or
money to strew all over the world. As you start using up your
resources, your options will progressively narrow. If you really
want to send some troops to one country, you may be forced to
pull some out of another. The total amount of money or troops
remaining for your use is displayed at the bottom of the policy-
making window.

[page 16]

Defensive Crisis -
----------------
Another defensive strategy that can be used is the crisis that you
initiate. If, for example, the Soviet Union sends massive aid to
support the Red Army terrorists in West Germany, you had better
put a stop to it fast. You do this by starting a crisis and standing
firm, demonstrating a willingness to escalate right up to (but not
including!) DefCon 1.

The mechanics of all this are simple enough. At the beginning of
each turn, you should consult the "USSR actions" item in the
"Events" menu. This will give you a quick summary of all your
adversary's actions that demand your attention.

[page 17]

If you find any action unacceptable, simply click the "Question"
button at the bottom of the window. This sends a polite diplomatic
note to the Soviets, notifying them that you question the wisdom
of their action. They will reconsider their action and respond,
either by backing down or by challenging you. You may either
back down or escalate to the next stage.

If you proceed to the next stage, then a diplomatic crisis is
initiated; one side or the other will lose prestige by backing down.
If neither side backs down, the crisis becomes a military crisis, 
with only two possible outcomes: nuclear war at DefCon 1 or a
major diplomatic defeat (with consequent loss of prestige) for one
side. A military crisis can start an accidental nuclear war. Don't
start a crisis unless you are determined to stop the Soviets. 
Remember, backing down in a crisis will cost you prestige, and
escalating can start a war.

The Soviets are also free to start a crisis over any of your actions
that particularly displease them. If this happens, you must recon-
sider your policy. If you wish to keep the policy in force, you must
stand up to the Soviets and escalate, even if this means risking a
war. If you back down, you will lose prestige and your policy will
be rescinded. Of course, if the Soviets are angry enough about
the matter, they will escalate right up to DefCon 1 and start a
nuclear war, in which event you both lose. So choose your fights
carefully.

[page 18]

To help you with your deliberations, there is a special display -
"Crisis Advisory" - that pops up once a crisis has begun. It will
show you the factors that you should consider in deciding whether
to escalate or back down.

Other Menu Options -

There are a great many menu items available to you that I have not 
discussed. These are all "accessories," not central to the play of
the game, but very handy for gathering crucial information.

The "Countries" menu contains items that allow you to quickly
determine trouble spots around the world. You can find where
revolutions have taken place with the "Major Events" item, and
the state of insurgency for every country in the world with the
"Insurgency" item. The "Spheres of Influence" chart will give you
a brief idea of how the world is divided between the two super-
powers. Don'ts mess with countries that are within the Soviet sphere
of influence. Don't let the Soviets mess with countries that are in
your own sphere of influence.

The "Relations" menu contains items that show the global policies
of both superpowers. It is only enabled when one of the two
superpowers has been selected by clicking on the superpower.
Want to know where the Soviets are sending military aid? How
about the status of Soviet interventions? It's all there.

The items in the "Events" menu present an organized view of
events around the world. If you want to know what provocative
actions the Soviets have taken, just consult the "USSR actions"
item. Unprovocative items are presented in "USSR other." Events
in minor countries are reported in the "Minor Country News" items.

[page 19]

The "Briefing" menu contains three items of interest. The
"Closeup" gives a detailed rundown on the selected country. It
shows the state of your policy toward the country and your 
opponent's policy toward the country, as well as some other
useful information. Especially useful is the assessment of the
strength of the insurgency and how quickly it is gaining or losing
strength. The Closeup can also be obtained by double-clicking a
country. The "Background" option is not necessary to the playing
of the game. It is just that: background information on the coun-
tries of the world. It is provided for your curiosity only. You are free
to browse around in the background mode at any time without
affecting the game; when your curiosity is satisfied, select
"Resume Game" to resume the play of the game. The "History" 
item displays a chart showing the development of the situation
within the selected country as a function of time. It is most
interesting late in the game, after you have created a little history.

[page 20]

End of Game -

The game ends if either side goes to DefCon 1 in a crisis. It can
also end in an accidental nuclear war during a military crisis. If
you manage to avoid this, then the game will end when you reach
the year 1997. Your score is your increase in prestige. If your
prestige has increased and that of the Soviet Union has decreased,
then you have done very well indeed. If you want to monitor your
progress during the course of the game, consult the "Score" item
from the "Game" menu.


The score you have earned during the current year (due to crises)
and the net increase in prestige since the beginning of the game
are all presented here. Your score is the last of these values. The
course of your scores during the game is also graphed, with
American values indicated by white squares and Soviet values by
black squares. If the Soviet score is greater than yours, you have
lost the game. If you score exceeds the Soviet score by less than

[page 21]

200 points, then it was a close game. On the other hand, if you
beat the USSR by 700 points or better, you have done exceed-
ingly well.

Some Hints on Play -

Although there is a great deal of information available in this
game, most of it is unimportant in the Beginner Level game. You
really do not need to consider the state of countries that are quiet.
There are really only two crucial questions to ask each turn:
"Who's having an internal war?" and "What are the Soviets up 
to?" You answer the first question by checking the "Insurgency"
map from the "Countries" menu. A civil war should attract your 
attention the same way that a circled wagon train attracts both
cavalry and Indians. A guerrilla war is less interesting but still
laden with opportunity or vulnerability.

You answer the second question by consulting the "USSR Actions"
item on the "Event menu." This will list every policy action taken
by the Soviet Union over which you may wish to start a crisis.

That's all there is to playing the Beginner Level game. There are,
of course, many fine points required to do well in the game. But
for now, you should play your first game of Balance of Power:
The 1990 Edition. Then come back and read the next section,
"Mastering the Beginner Level Game."

[page 22]

(BLANK)

[page 23]

Mastering the Beginner Level Game 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
You have played your first real game of Balance of Power: The 
1990 Edition. You understand the mechanics of the game. Now
you'd like to play the game well. This is mostly a matter of under-
standing what's going on in the game. This manual explains the
ideas behind the Beginner Level game and gives hints on playing
well.

Domino Theory -

The central superpower strategy of the Beginner Level game is a
variation of the old Domino theory of international power politics.
A superpower cannot support an insurgency in a country unless
it has troops stationed in a neighboring country. Thus, a success-
ful insurgency in one country can be used to further insurgencies in
neighboring countries in a step-by-step process. It is therefore
vitally important to prevent your opponent from stationing troops
in new countries, and to place your own troops adjacent to
unfriendly countries. You don't need to put garrisons all over the
world; all you need are strategically-placed troops. You must also
block Soviet efforts to place troops near vulnerable friendly nations.

Insurgencies don't just happen by accident, and they don't grow
randomly. Insurgencies develop according to the conditions inside
the country. An insurgency's strength is pitted against the strength
of the government. Some governments are very strong and some
are weak. Many governments are so strong that no insurgency
could ever hope for success. However, steady funding will keep
the insurgency alive, even if only at the level of terrorism. This is
the situation with West Germany right now. The government there
is far too strong to ever be vulnerable to insurgency, yet it is not
quite strong enough to eradicate the small band of terrorists who
occasionally strike.

The really vulnerable nations are those with governments so weak
that even a small insurgency could quickly mushroom into a
major civil war. Such states are often small, poor, and have little
history of democratic traditions. Your insurgency dollar will go
farther in these countries - and so will the Soviets'!

[page 24]

Many beginning players have a problem identifying their friends.
How does one know whom to support and whom to weaken? The
best answer to this is to consult the "Diplomatic Relations" dis-
play. It is good to do this regularly at first until you become familiar
with political alignment among countries. You want to support
friendly nations and undermine unfriendly nations.

This game is bipolar in structure. The world is divided into left-
wing groups and right-wing groups. In most nations, the government
is of one wing and the insurgency is of the opposite wing. If the
insurgents win, they become the government and the old govern-
ment becomes the insurgency. In general, left-wing governments
lean towards the Soviet Union while right-wing governments lean
towards the United States. Thus, if you find a left-wing govern-
ment that is unfriendly to the USA, you would do well to support
the insurgents against it; the right-wing insurgents will almost
certainly be friendly if they win the revolution. On the other hand,
a right-wing unfriendly government poses some tricky problems;
if the rebels win, their left-wing government will be grateful to you
for supporting them but they will probably be friendly to the USSR
as well. You must carefully judge which course of action would be
in your best interest in a situation like this.

Crises -

Handling crises properly is crucial to success in this game; most
games are won or lost in crises. This is because the prestige at
stake in a crisis is normally greater than the prestige gain that will
be won by the policy in question. For example, suppose you get 
into a crisis over weapons shipments to the Mujahedin in Afghani-
stan. Even if you were completely successful in Afghanistan, 
replacing the Communist government there with an absolutely
faithful ally, the total gain in prestige for you from this would be
perhaps 10 or 20 points. On the other hand, the crisis itself could
easily generate 100 points of prestige loss. This is because the
crisis is played out in front of the whole world, and the entire
world reacts to your behavior in the crisis. Thus, crises are where
the game is won or lost. You must know when to start a crisis
and when to let something pass, when to escalate and when
to back down.

Remember, a crisis is very much like a poker game. There is no
absolute law that determines what the USA or the USSR can or
cannot do. The only law is what you can bluff them into accepting.
To work, a bluff has to be credible. Your opponent must believe 
that you really will push the button over the issue in contention. In

[page 25]

deciding whether to back down, the Soviets will consider such
factors as your treaty commitments to the nation in question, state
of diplomatic relations, your demonstrated record of integrity in
supporting client states, and the resolve you have shown in previ-
ous crises. If you have laid the groundwork, you can stare them
down. If you just bluster, you will start a war.

Read the Soviet crisis statements diligently. They are worded very
carefully; if you learn to read the diplomatic language used in
them, you will better be able to tell when they are bluffing and
when they are serious. Much diplomacy hinges on delicately-
phrased communications - be sensitive to their meanings!

Crises have many dangers. Don't ever enter a crisis with a cavalier
attitude, expecting to see how far you can push the Soviets and
thinking that you can always back down just short of war. If the
crisis escalates to a Military Crisis, you could start an accidental
nuclear war! Even if this doesn't happen, you face other risks. The
higher you drive the crisis, the more prestige you lose when you 
back down. If you back down on the first or second step of the 
crisis (the steps marked "Question" and "Challenge"), then no
prestige will be lost. Once you move past these low levels, the title
of the window changes from "BackChannel Communication" to
"Diplomatic Crisis" and the issue has gone public. With the whole
world watching, the side that backs down is guaranteed to lose
prestige. Indeed, the loss of prestige associated with backing down
can be more important to the outcome of the game than the issue
being contested.

To help you with this decision, the amount of prestige at risk is
presented just below the two buttons for escalation and backdown.
The number presented is the amount of prestige that will be lost
by the side that backs down. You can use this as a guide for your
behavior in a crisis. For a variety of technical reasons, the number
given is not a perfectly accurate predictor of the actual results,
but it is a reliable guide.

Crises also tend to make the world less civilized. The more the 
superpowers rattle their sabers at each other, the more militaristic
other nations become. The world operates under a diplomatic
mood that greatly affects the behavior of nations; if you make that
mood warlike, don't be surprised if the world situation deterio-
rates. The higher the tension between you and the USSR, the
greater the chance of an accidental nuclear war starting during a
Military Crisis.

[page 26]

Cause and Effect -

It's very easy to become confused about the nature of cause and
effect in this game. With all the activity, it's hard to know why
things turn out the way they do. There is, of course, a great deal of
information available to help you understand the situation. Between
the events, the myriad map displays, and the closeups, nobody
can complain about a shortage of information. The problem is
more one of understanding how all these pieces fit together into a
coherent whole.

The danger here is the temptation to assume that there are always
one-to-one relationships between causes and effects. Some peo-
ple like to think that every single cause must have a single effect.
The real world is far more complex than this, and this edition of
Balance of Power reflects that complexity. Every action has many
effects that ripple through the world, and every event has multiple
causes. Everything is tied together. To cope with this, you have to
use a skill seldom required in computer games: judgment. Con-
sider how the impact of your own actions is affected by the
actions of your adversary.

A good way to learn about the processes of the game is to check
the "History" charts from time to time that are provided under the
"Briefings" menu. These charts show the development of the
internal situation for each country during the course of the game.
Obviously, they will provide you with little useful information early
on - there isn't much history to study early in the game. But late in
the game, or after the game ends, you can study these charts to 
see how things developed.

Options -

The Beginner Level game can be played with two variations: "side
to play" and "number of players."

The "side to play" option offers you the choice to play as the
General Secretary of the Soviet Union. The game is in every way
the same, except that you see the world from the point of view of
the USSR. You will find the experience quite enlightening.

The "number of players" option allows you to play the game with a
friend. When this option is chosen, one player represents the USA
and the other represents the USSR. You both use the same
mouse to enter your commands. The problem here is that the

[page 27]

computer might get confused as to just who is doing the talking.
If, for example, somebody decides to send troops to intervene in
favor of the government of Afghanistan, the computer had better
not get mixed up and send the wrong troops!

The solution to this problem is to have the computer always
declare who has the mouse. In the lower left-hand corner of the
screen, the computer will print a message such as "USA holds
mouse." This means that the computer is expecting the USA 
player to be holding the mouse and entering commands. The
USSR player has to wait until the USA player relinquishes the
mouse by selecting the "Change Sides" option from the "Game"
menu. Whenever you change sides, the computer will beep and
print the message telling who is holding the mouse. During a
crisis, the computer will automatically change sides for the players.
Players must be careful that they don't enter orders for their
opponents.

The tone of the two-player game is very different from that of the
single-player game. It's very hard for two friends sitting next to
each other to agree to annihilate humanity. In the two-player
game, a very important aspect of diplomacy is lacking: the sense
of uncertainty arising from poor communications between the
superpowers. In the real world, each of the two leaders never
knows what the other is thinking; considerable energy is expended
second-guessing the opposition. Such is seldom the case with
the two-player game. However, the two-player game offers another
possibility unavailable in the one-player game: detailed verbal
treaty-making. It is very often possible to resolve a crisis through
negotiation. ("Look, you get your troops out of Nicaragua and I'll
stop funding the contras.")

Intermediate Level -

The Beginner Level game is not meant to stand alone as a
complete game - it is only a preparation for the next level of the
game. When you feel that you have mastered the Beginner Level
game, read the manual for the Intermediate Level and play the
game at the next level. The world is getting more complex!

[page 28]

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[page 29]

The Intermediate Level Game
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Intermediate Level game includes everything in the Beginner
Level game and introduces new concepts, greater realism, and a
deeper challenge. You should not tackle the Intermediate Level
game until you are comfortable with the Beginner Level game.

Overall Approach -

The Intermediate Level game introduces a new channel of geopo-
litical interaction: the subversion and destabilization of foreign
governments. In the Beginner Level game one strives to overthrow
an unfriendly government with local insurgents. In the Intermedi-
ate Level game, one can also replace the government with a more
friendly one through the less violent avenue of the coup d'etat.
This is a more subtle, less direct approach requiring a greater
degree of finesse.

To support this greater degree of finesse, the game provides more
information on the internal characteristics of each country. Sev-
eral new menu options make it possible to obtain this information.

The game plays in much the same way as the Beginner Level
game. Your goals are to: 1)Topple unfriendly regimes while pro-
tecting friendly ones; 2)Use crises to reverse objectionable Soviet
actions; and 3)Defend your own policies in Soviet-initiated crises.

The Nature of Coups D'etat -

The central new concept of the Intermediate Level game is the
coup d'etat. This is a change of government initiated by political
factors rather than military ones. Rebels must use military power
to win a revolution, but a coup can overthrow a government only if
the political climate is ripe for it. The most important element of
the political climate is the performance of the economy. If the
economy performs well, the political climate is favorable for the
existing government. But if the economy performs poorly, discon-
tent rises and the government is vulnerable to a coup. Modifying
this is the political control exerted by the government. Some
states, such as the Soviet Union or East Germany, exercise such 
thorough control over their citizens that there is little or no chance
of a true coup d'etat. A changing of the guard, perhaps, but not a

[page 30]

policy-changing coup. Totalitarian governments with sufficiently
strong political control can survive with economic performance
that would topple other governments.

Although I use the term "coup d'etat," in this game the process
applies to any significant change of executive brought about by 
political processes. Even elections fall under the broad definition
of "coup d'etat" used in this game.

Destabilization -

If a government is shaky, you can topple it (hence bringing about
a coup d'etat) with the judicious use of "Destabilization." You
destabilize a government by sending in the CIA to encourage
dissidents, fund the opposition, incite riots, and create other
domestic political mayhem. If the government is already weak, this
might be enough to push it over the edge. If the government is
strong, your efforts will accomplish nothing.

Destabilization costs you nothing; it takes very little money to
make trouble of this nature. It will, of course, anger your oppo-
nent, possibly triggering a crisis. It will also antagonize the
government against which it is applied. If you are successful, this
will not be a concern for long.

Preventing Coups - Economic Aid -

You can protect a friendly regime from coups by assisting its
economy. This is done with economic aid, a direct transfer of
money from your economy to the recipient's. Your GNP will be
reduced with the secondary effect of reducing the amount of
money available for military expenditures. The recipient's economy
will be boosted; this will increase public satisfaction with the
regime. Thus, economic aid reduces a country's vulnerability to
coups d'etat. Of course, the magnitude of the effect is dependent
on the wealth of the recipient. If you dump 4 billion dollars on
poverty-stricken Mali, that amounts to a near-doubling of its Gross
National Product; the effect on the Malians will be electric. Bask-
ing in their immense wealth, their discontent with the government
will completely vanish. However, a wealthier country like Britain is
much harder to buy off. Four billion dollars is but a drop in the
bucket for such a country. Thus, it is very difficult to save a 
wealthy nation with economic assistance.

[page 31]

Effects of Coups D'etat -

When a coup d'etat occurs, the government reverses its domestic
political philosophy. If the government was left-wing, then the
right-wingers take over and the left-wingers head for the hills to
take up their new role as the disloyal opposition, the insurgents.
An exception to this general rule arises with some Communist
countries (especially Eastern Bloc nations) for whom the notion of
a right-wing government is simply absurd. In such countries,
one left-wing government will be replaced by another left-wing
government.

The new government will also adjusts its diplomatic alignments,
especially with respect to the superpowers. When a government
shifts to the right, that often (but not always) means that relations
with the USA will improve. Similarly, when a government shifts to
the left, that normally implies a worsening of relations. The excep-
tions occur when extremist governments take over. They tend to
dislike everybody.

The moderate Western nations tend to avoid dramatic policy
changes when they undergo a change of government. Britain may 
kick out Margaret Thatcher and swing toward the left, but the
actual policy changes will be very minor; Britain will still be a 
friend of the USA. Look for dramatic changes in the less stable
Third World countries.

When a coup d'etat takes place, the event will show up in the
news. The effect of the coup on the scores of the two superpowers
will be presented.

New Menu Options -

Countries Menu -
--------------
The Countries menu includes a new entry: the "Coup d'etat?"
menu item. This menu item makes it easy to identify countries in
which coups are likely and so require your attention.

Economic Aid and Destabilization -
--------------------------------
The "Economic Aid" and "Destabilization" items on the "Relations"
menu are now enabled. You can readily see how much economic
aid is going out of the USSR or the USA, and what their secret
services are up to.

[page 32]

Make Policies Menu -
------------------
Two new items are enabled on this menu: "Economic Aid" and
"Destabilize." These two options allow you to implement the policies
described above. The mechanics of these options are identical to
the mechanics of the options you already know how to use.

Hints on Play -

Your approach in this game will be similar to your approach in the
Beginner Level game. You must keep an eye on the Soviets to
make sure that they don't pull any fast ones. You must monitor the
world for insurgencies. In addition, you must now be on the
lookout for governments that are about to fall. When you find such
a shaky government, you must decide whether you want to save it
or give it a push. Save friendly governments, push unfriendly ones.

The Intermediate Level game introduces the concept of indirect
actions. In the Beginner Level game, every event is the direct
result of specific actions. But coup phenomena operate at a more
subtle level. There are, of course, the direct elements of economic
aid and destabilization. But there are also more indirect ways of 
influencing events within a country.

Remember that a coup is created by poor economic conditions
within a country. A major contributor to poor economic perfor-
mance is the military spending of the government. High military
spending tends to weaken the economy. You can influence a 
government's military spending policies by making that govern-
ment feel more or less military secure. Thus, stationing troops in
a country and giving it military aid will have the secondary effect of
reducing the likelihood of a coup. Conversely, funding insurgents
or intervening in favor of the insurgency will reduce the govern-
ment's political strength by forcing it to increase military spending
to counter the threat.

[page 33]

Events Versus States -

It is also useful to clearly understand the difference between
events and states, and their significance to cause and effect in
this game. A state is a condition that remains in force for some
period of time, usually permanently. For example, economic aid,
military aid, and interventions are all states; once you set them up
they remain in force indefinitely.

An event is simply a transition between states. When you increase
economic aid to Mexico, that is an event; you are changing the
state of economic aid from a low state to a higher state. Events
are transitory in nature; an event happens and goes away, leaving
behind its effects on states.

The significance of all of this has to do with the nature of cause
and effect in this game. Most effects are caused by states, not by
events. For example, a coup d'etat in Honduras cannot be directly
caused by the USA reducing economic aid to Honduras. A coup
is triggered by poor economic performance, which in turn is
affected by the state of American economic aid. To say that a
reduction in aid caused the coup is indirect and misleading. It is
more accurate to say that a low state of aid caused the coup.

Therefore, you should concentrate your attention on the states of
your relationships with countries, not on the events. How you
changed things last year is nowhere near as important as how
things ended up. The state is what really matters, not the event.

Be warned that the Intermediate Level game is not as easy to win
as the Beginner Level game. In the Intermediate Level, you will
find the Soviets to be less accommodating and more adventur-
ous. Moreover, the Beginner Level game is fairly predictable;
nations have pretty much the same outlook and policies from
game to game. Not so the Intermediate Level game; the diplomatic
relationships that begin the game are a bit different every game,
so you can't take other countries for granted.

[page 34]

(BLANK)

[page 35]

The Expert Level Game
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Expert Level game includes everything in the Intermediate
Level game and adds new elements that increase the realism and
challenge of the game. You should not attempt the Expert Level 
game until you are comfortable with the Intermediate Level game.

Overall Approach -

The Expert Level game introduces the third vehicle for govern-
mental change: Finlandization. The term comes from the postwar
experience of Finland. Finland had been an ally of Nazi Germany
against USSR; when the war ended, Finland was not invaded
by the Soviets only because they were too busy with bigger fish.
Yet, Finland did not get off scot-free. None of the Western powers
were willing to stand up for a Nazi ally. Thus, Finland was "diplo-
matically isolated"; it had no friends and lived in the shadow of a
powerful enemy. The Soviets did not need to invade. The Finns
saw the writing on the wall and started behaving themselves in a 
manner calculated to endear themselves to their powerful neigh-
bors. Thus, while Finland is nominally a neutral country, it is
effectively under very strong Soviet influence.

Finlandization can occur to any nation that perceives itself to be
in a hopeless diplomatic and military position. If a superpower is
hostile and possesses the the power to crush the victim, and external
support is inadequate to protect the victim, then the victim
Finlandizes; it adjusts its diplomatic position to make itself less
hostile and more friendly to the dangerous superpower. In the
process, it partially assumes the diplomatic stance of that super-
power. Thus, Finland's relations with the USA are poor not because
of any disagreements between Finland and the USA but because
the Soviets are unfriendly to the USA.

Finlandization is especially important in Europe, where countries
like West Germany are intensely aware of massive Soviet power
on the other side of their borders. Soviet military power in Eastern
Europe constitutes a direct threat to Western Europe; the Western
European nations would be forced to accommodate Soviet desires
if it weren't for American protection.

[page 36]

In the Expert Level game, you attempt to encourage or discourage
Finlandization among the nations of the world. You have two
weapons to help you: Pressure and Treaties.

Pressure -

Pressure is an attempt to intimidate a country with words and
provocative actions. (You can exert diplomatic pressure on a 
country from the "Policies" menu.)

A simple diplomatic note expressing "grave concern" can be
interpreted as a very weak form of pressure. At the opposite
extreme we have the full-scale diplomatic offensive, including an
array of actions such as holding naval maneuvers off the coast of
the victim, making speeches about the evil ways of the victim, or
ostentatiously consulting with declared enemies of the victim. All
of these actions serve to make a victim acutely aware of the
disparity in strength between the two nations. If the victim feels
sufficiently insecure, it will Finlandize to the superpower applying
pressure. Obviously, the more pressure is applied, the greater the
likelihood that the victim will indeed Finlandize.

It is also possible to indirectly pressure a country. If you project a
ruthless image, countries will be more fearful of you and might
Finlandize. This is especially likely after a big crisis. If you intimi-
date the Soviets in a big crisis and force them to back down,
other countries may well Finlandize to you out of fear of those big
bad Americans.

[page 37]

When a country Finlandizes to a superpower, a news message will
be created describing how the leader of the Finlandizing country
praises the Superpower that is the object of the policy. Although
the word "Finlandize" does not appear, you should have no trou-
ble interpreting the headline.

Treaties -

The antidote for pressure is a treaty. If you fear that a client of
yours may Finlandize to the Soviet Union, you can bolster that
client's will to resist in several ways. You can send military aid to
increase its military power, or you can station American troops in
that country to help defend it. BY increasing its defensive military
strength, you shore up its flagging confidence. Another way to
achieve the same end is to sign a treaty with the nation.

Treaties in this game are simpler than treaties in the real world.
Their real value in this game is their symbolic value as a show of
support for the country. A treaty implies a degree of commitment
on your part for the regime with which you sign. You are, to a
greater of lesser degree, guaranteeing the security of the country
with which you sign the treaty. The degree of commitment is
related to the type of treaty. A treaty establishing diplomatic rela-

[page 38]

tions between your two countries commits you to very little. In
contrast, a nuclear defense treaty is an absolute commitment that
you will take all measures possible, including the initiation of a
nuclear holocaust, to protect the signatory.

Caution -
-------
Nations with which you have treaty relationships place great stock
in the value of the American commitment. A solid treaty commit-
ment is worth many divisions of troops in terms of providing
military security. And it costs nothing whatever to sign a treaty!
However, there are several catches of which you should be aware.
First, you can never back out of a treaty. Once you sign a treaty, it
stays until the other country decides to cancel it. You, however,
are not allowed to cancel treaties. Second, the commitment you 
make must be honored. If a government is destroyed by an inter-
nal rebellion or a coup, and you had a treaty relationship with that
government, then the credibility of all your treaties all over the
world will be diminished in proportion to the degree of commit-
ment you had made. Consider, for example, West Germany. The
United States has a nuclear defense treaty with West Germany,
the most solemn pledge of support possible. If the government of
West Germany were to fall to insurgents or a coup, the credibility
of all your other treaties would plummet. It does not matter how
hard you tried to defend West Germany - if the government falls,
you have failed to meet your treaty obligations. The other nations
of the world will take note. The amount of credibility you lose
depends on the circumstances. You will always lose a great deal
of credibility if the government falls to insurgents. If the govern-
ment falls for political reasons, the amount of credibility you lose
depends on the degree of political maturity within the country.
Thus, a change of government in West Germany will not hurt your
credibility very much because it corresponds to an election, with
very little real change in policy. On the other hand, a coup in
Zimbabwe could well mean a completely new government and a
large swing in policy. The previous president could well lose
his head in such a coup; your loss of credibility would thus
be much larger.

Military Power -

Military power is an important concept in this game. Three factors
affect military power: military spending, military personnel, and
distance. Intrinsic military power is related to both military spend-
ing and military personnel. Thus, you need lots of soldiers and
lots of weapons to make a powerful army. If you have lots of one

[page 39]

and little of the other, your intrinsic military power will be less, but
will still be sizable.

Intrinsic military power is the amount of military power you can
bring to bear within your own borders. It is only significant in
determining a country's ability to defend itself. An aggressor's
ability to project military power against other countries depends
on the distance between the aggressor and its intended victim. If 
the two countries are contiguous, then the aggressor can project
its full military power against the victim. If not, the aggressor's
military power is diminished by the distance between the two.

In practice, this means that Finlandization is most common with
countries close to or bordering a superpower. However, there is
one special circumstance that can radically alter this equation. If
a superpower places troops in a country, it will be able to project
power into neighboring countries as if they were contiguous with
the superpower itself. For example, if the Soviet Union places
troops into Libya, then the countries bordering on Libya (Tunisia,
Algeria, Sudan, and Egypt) will have their security undermined by
those Soviet troops and will be that much more vulnerable to
Finlandization.

Strategy -
--------
This suggests a strategy for the game. If you can establish good
relations with a country in a remote area and eventually send
troops into that country, then the countries bordering on your
client will suddenly be far more susceptible to Finlandization. A
foothold gives you a point of leverage from which you can expand
your influence dramatically. Of course, the Soviet Union can use
the same strategy.

New Menu Items -

Several new menu items extend your power to gather information
and make policy. The "Countries" menu now includes two items
that show you the likelihood that countries will Finlandize to you
or to your adversary. This map can be misleading. It is based on
information available at the beginning of each turn-year and does
not take into account events that occur during the course of the
year. Thus, any treaties you sign, troops you place, or pressure
you apply, or any such actions taken by your adversary, will not
affect these displays. They are useful as general guides but can-
not give you the absolute certainly arising from instant feedback.

[page 40]

The remaining new menu items are straightforward. Two new
items in the "Make Policy" menu allow you to make treaties and to 
apply pressure. Other menu items on the "USA" and "USSR"
menus allow you to monitor the state of treaties around the world.
Finally, the "Closeup" display now includes information on the
likelihood of Finlandization to each of the superpowers as well as
the rate and direction of change in this likelihood.

Hints on Play -

To win the Expert Level game, you must take a more careful
approach to your policies. In the Beginner Level and Intermediate
Level, you can use simple "cowboy" strategies. Get the bad guys
and help the good guys - that's about all there is to these levels. In
the Expert Level, you must more careful consider the conse-
quences of your actions. Treaties are powerful means of securing
your friends, but they can cause you to lose the game if
they are misused.

Example -
-------
Consider the following scenario: The Mujahedin win the civil war
in Afghanistan. You rush military aid to their support and foolishly
sign a conventional defense treaty to bolster their confidence so
that they will not Finlandize to the USSR. The Soviets, smarting
under the loss, pour huge quantities of weapons into the country

[page 41]

to assist the ex-government, and intervene with even more troops
than before. Not daring a direct confrontation by sending Ameri-
can troops in, you wait and hope. The new Mujahedin government
is defeated by the Soviet-backed government. Nations all over the
world suddenly realize that a defense treaty with the USA is
worthless. Those most threatened by Soviet power immediately
Finlandize. Diplomatic momentum moves against you and your
prestige plummets. Had you written off Afghanistan without offer-
ing a treaty, you would have lost only Afghanistan.

Importance of Indirect Elements -
-------------------------------
Keep in mind the importance of indirect elements. The direct
elements unique to the Expert Level game are treaties and pres-
sure, but the indirect elements can exert a profound influence on
the game. Indeed, the most important difference between the
lower levels and the Expert Level is that the indirect elements play
a much larger role.

* Psychological effect of military power. Troops stationed in a
country can bolster its sense of security, preventing Finlandization.
Troops stationed in a country neighboring a hostile nation will
greatly increase the sense of insecurity in the hostile nation, and
may intimidate it into Finlandizing. Thus, military power can be
used in the Expert Level game to produce results without ever a 
shot being fired.

* Integrity. The Psychological value of your treaties is directly
proportional to the integrity with which you back them. If you allow
client states to fall to revolution or coups, your treaties lose
their meaning.

* Your image of ruthlessness. If you ship troops all over the world,
embark on grand military adventures, and above all, if you show
no hesitation to escalate crises to dangerous levels, you will foster
an image of an aggressive, ruthless wielder of power. Minor coun-
tries of the world will fear you because they know you are willing
to use your military power. Finlandizing will be more common.
The problem is, such behavior on your part will probably encour-
age like behavior from your opponent.

[page 42]

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[page 43]

Multipolar Level
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Multipolar level game is the most advanced level of Balance
of Power: The 1990 Edition. It is also the most difficult. The pri-
mary difference between the multipolar level game and the expert
level game is that the countries of the world are no longer passive
pawns, but instead they pursue active foreign policies. They are
limited to acting at the beginner level of the game - they can only
ship weapons and troops. Moreover, few of the Third World coun-
tries have enough military power to make much impact on other
countries. But there are lots of countries out there, and their
cumulative impact can be large. They can also fight wars.

Theory -

There are two competing views of international relations: the bipo-
lar view and the multipolar view. The bipolar view is the simpler of
the two. It holds that the world consists of two superpowers and 
many minor countries. The rivalry between the superpowers is the
dominant issue in world affairs. The attitudes and actions of the
minor countries are of secondary importance in the bipolar view
of the international scene. Their primary role lies in their position
in the superpower rivalry.

The multipolar view holds that the two superpowers are only the
most powerful of a large community of nations. The superpower
rivalry is important, but there remain local issues that are locally
more important than the superpower rivalry. The multipolar view is
more complex and more accurate that the bipolar view, but it is
correspondingly more difficult to understand. The multipolar level
of Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition simplifies matters consider-
ably, but remains very challenging.

Trade -

There is only one new policy option at this level: trade policy. You
may adjust your trade policy toward any country. This policy will
have no effect on its economy. It will, however, make a diplomatic
statement that will affect relations between your two countries.

[page 44]

New Menu Options -
 
You can now look at the policy actions of any country using the
"Relations" menu.

Just click on the country in question and select the menu item
you desire. You can look at either the policies "going out" (the
policy decisions of the country towards other countries) or the
policies "going in" (the policy decisions of other countries toward
the selected country). Just select the option you want from the
last two items on the menu. If for any reason you end up selecting
a nonsensical option (e.g., destabilizing activity going into the
USA), the map will be redrawn without shading.

Closeup Totals -

The total values for such things as military aid and troop interven-
tions presented in the CLOSEUP display now include the
contributions of many countries. Therefore, they will no longer be
equal to the sum of the superpower contributions.

Minor Country Crises -

You can read the changes in policy of the minor (non-superpower)
countries in the "Minor Country News" item from the
"Events" menu.

[page 45]

If you have influence over a minor country, you will be able to
challenge any of its decisions that don't like.

Influence is derived from your relationship with the country; it is
achieved through:

* good diplomatic relations

* a strong treaty relationship

* some troops stationed there

* some aid going to the government.

The right to challenge their actions does not guarantee compli-
ance. The minor country may reject your challenge. You can
escalate the crisis just like a crisis with a superpower, but the
minor country crisis is a purely diplomatic one - there are no
military overtones or consequences. You can't blow up the world
with a minor country crisis. The higher you escalate, the more
pressure you are placing on the minor country, and the more

[page 46]

antagonism you generate from that minor country. You stand to
lose no prestige by backing down.

Minor Country Wars -

Especially dangerous are the wars that minor countries can fight.
Minor countries will go to war when their relations become partic-
ularly bad. When this happens, the two countries will fight it out
until one of them is badly beaten; then the loser surrenders and
the war is over. The loser adjusts its foreign policy stance to make
it more compatible with the stance of the winner. There are two
menu items that show the state of minor country wars.

Hints on Play -

The Multipolar game takes even more assiduous effort on your
part than the Expert level game. You must keep track of activity
throughout the world and try to keep your all-too-eager allies
under control. Remember that aggressive foreign policies can
easily drag a minor country into foreign wars. When this happens,
you will be forced to support your client state or allow it to be
defeated. Since neither option is desirable, the best course you
can take is to prevent the wars in the first place.

At this point you may be thinking, "Why do I care about what
minor countries do - If there is no possibility of nuclear confronta-
tion, what difference does it make?" The answer: The indirect
effects of what those minor countries do CAN lead to superpower
confrontation and potential nuclear war. It is up to you to make
sure that doesn't happen.

But how do you prevent your client states from going too far? The
first and best way is to exercise some self-restraint yourself. If you
behave like an international hooligan, don't be surprised to see
other countries start to act in the same way. Remember, the
superpowers set the tone for much of what goes on in the world
arena. The watchphrase here is "leadership by example."

Even so, there will still be cases in which an overeager friendly
nation engages in an adventurous foreign policy. It is imperative
that you bring matters under rein fast. Weapons shipped today
can easily lead to troop movements tomorrow, and that leads
directly to war. So use the minor country crisis to head off the
small problems before they turn into big problems. It may cost you
short-term prestige, but will also save you grief later.

[page 47]

For example, suppose Israel begins shipping weapons to help the
insurgency in Syria. You let it slip, telling yourself that Syria is a
terrorist state anyway and probably deserves a little internal ter-
rorism. Next thing you know, Syria and the rest of the Arab world
have become even angrier with Israel, and they escalate their
efforts against Israel. Pretty soon somebody sends in regular
troops to help the Palestinians inside Israel, and then Israel
declares war. Fine, you tell yourself; let the Israelis kick the Arabs
again. Sure enough, the Israelis stomp the Syrians, Egyptians, 
and Jordanians just as they always have. This time, though, the
Soviets are not about to let their Syrian allies down, so they send
in troops to help the Syrians. Israelis shoot Russians, Russians
shoot Israelis, and now you're watching as the Soviet Union brings
the full power of its military forces against the state of Israel. NOW
what are you going to do, smart person? Your only choice, of
course, is to square off with the Soviets in a superpower crisis,
the kind that blows up the world. Good luck. Maybe you should
have shut this thing down before it got out of hand.

[page 48]

(BLANK)

[page 49]

Reference to Commands
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
This document provides a reference to the commands and options
available in Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition. It should not be
read as a substitute for the tutorial manuals for the different levels.
It assumes Multipolar Level throughout.

Title Screen -

This screen presents you with two options: start a new game or
load an old game. If you choose the former, you will proceed to
the OPTIONS screen. If you choose the latter, the computer will
load whatever game you were last playing, and it will be exactly as
it was when you left it.

Options Screen -

This screen is only available when you begin the game. It allows
you to choose the type of game you will play. You have three
choices to make: the level of play, the side to play, and the number
of players.

Level of Play -
-------------
This option allows you to determine the level at which you will
play. The Beginner Level is intended for players who are just
learning to play and has simplified play. The Intermediate Level is
just that - an intermediate step between Beginner Level and Expert
Level. It provides more complexity and greater realism. The Expert
Level presents an even more complex game; its complexity is too
great for inexperienced players. The Multipolar Level is the most
advanced level in the game.

Side to Play -
------------
This option allows you to play as either the President of the United
States or the General Secretary of the Soviet Union. If you choose
to play the USSR, the computer will play the USA (unless you
have a human opponent).

[page 50]

Number of Players -
-----------------
This option allows you to choose between a one-player game and
a two-player game. In a one-player game, you play against the
computer. In a two-player game, you play against another person,
taking turns to make your moves.

Anti-Piracy Dialog -

This is a dialog box that appears early in the game. It asks you to
type the xth word from the nth line on page z of this manual. You
must look up the answer here. In case you should become con-
fused over the method used to count lines and words, here is the
correct way to do it:

* For page numbers, just use the number at the bottom of the
page.

* For line numbers, start with the line of text at the top of the page
(including headings) and count downward: the first line is #1, the
second line is #2, etc. Short lines at the beginning of a paragraph,
such as the above heading "Anti-Piracy Dialog" DO count as
lines, while blank lines DO NOT. *Title lines in boxes at the top of
the page (for example, Reference to Commands above) DO NOT
count as lines.

[page 51]

* For word numbers, just count from the left side of the page. Any
collection of letters or characters that has spaces on either side
counts as one word. Thus, "anti-piracy" counts as one word, not
two, and "Line #2" counts as two words.

If you type in the wrong answer, no harm will be done. The
computer will say some unfriendly things and let you try again.
You can keep trying forever. If you have pirated a copy of this
game, and don't have this manual, then you will end up trying
forever - DESERVEDLY so! But, as a gracious gesture, the author
offers you the opportunity to escape from this trap by pressing
the "Give Up" button. This will quit the game.

Game Menu -

This menu handles options related to the administration of the
game. It has five items: score, next turn, undo last turn, change
sides, and quit game.

Score -
-----
This option raises the score window. This window presents the
geopolitical prestige of the two superpowers. Two values are
presented: the increase in prestige during this turn (arising from
crises) and the increase in prestige since the game began. Your
score is the last number. A graph of the scores of both superpow-
ers over time is presented. Soviet scores are denoted by black
boxes while American scores are denoted by white boxes. When
you have finished reading the score window, click the close box in
the upper left corner to resume play.

[page 52]

Next Turn -
---------
This item notifies the computer that the player has completed his
move for the current year. When you choose next turn, the com-
puter begins a long series of computations. It first determines the
reactions of the Soviet Union to the actions taken by the USA.
The Soviet Union has the option of triggering a crisis over any
of these actions. If the Soviets take this option, you will enter
the "Crisis" window.

After news is analyzed, the computer then determines the internal
developments in each country. These include economic computa-
tions, such as the changes in GNP and population; adjustments
in spending in response to changes in the world situation; the
progress of any local insurgency; possible coups d'etat;
and finlandization.

Lastly, the computer figures the move of the computer player.
These things done, the computer advances the calendar by one
year and returns control to the player. The entire process takes
about twenty seconds.

This menu item is grayed out on two-player games until the
Change Sides option is used.

Undo Last Turn -
--------------
This option restores the game to its state just before you last
chose the "Next Turn" option. It is useful if you make a major
blunder and wish to correct it. You cannot go backwards more
than one year. If you use this option, you cannot use it again to
return to the future. It does one and only one thing: it restores the
state of the game to what it was just before you last chose the 
"Next Turn" option.

Change Sides -
------------
This option allows you to change sides in a two-player game. It
informs the computer that the mouse is now controlled by the
other player. The computer will interpret mouse actions accord-
ingly. This can be very important. If, for example, the Soviet player
wants to give a billion dollars to Nicaragua, he wouldn't want the
computer thinking that it's the American player doing so. Two
additional features insure that there are no misunderstandings.
First, in all two-player games, the computer lists the mouse-
holding player at the bottom of the screen. The USA player should

[page 53]

be the only one to handle the mouse as long as the screen says,
"USA holds mouse." Second, to make absolutely sure that players
know what's going on (and to prevent false move entries), the
computer will beep whenever the Change Sides option is chosen.

The Next Turn option is grayed out in two-player games until the
Change Sides option is used. This prevents a player from
"accidentally" going to the next turn before the opponent has
an opportunity to enter his own moves.

Quit Game -
---------
Use this option to exit the game and return to the desktop. The
current state of the game will be automatically saved away and
you can resume the game at a later time by selecting the "load
Old Game" option from the title screen.

Countries -

This menu allows you to examine factors related to the non-
superpowers.

Spheres of Influence -
--------------------
This menu item displays the spheres of influence of the two
superpowers - in other words, the countries that are regarded as a
superpower's private turf. For example, Eastern Europe is in the
Soviet sphere of influence, while much of Latin America is in the
American sphere of influence. Each side knows not to mess with
the countries in the other's sphere of influence. However, many
countries of the world do not clearly lie within either superpower's
sphere of influence; these are shaded to indicate a "weak" sphere
of influence. Be warned that a weak sphere of influence could be
almost meaningless.

[page 54]

Spheres of influence change during the course of the game.
A crisis is a tug of war over a country. Whoever wins the  crisis
establishes a stronger claim to that country.

Major Events -
------------
This menu item displays any major events that took place in the
previous year. A major event is a transition associated with the
three avenues of governmental change in the game (insurgency,
coups, and finlandization). Thus, the three major events are revo-
lutions, coups, and acts of finlandization. If any of these occurs in 
a country, it will be shaded accordingly. Since a country can hold
only one shade, if several major events occur in one country, the
lesser one(s) will not be displayed. A revolution takes priority over
a coup, and a coup takes priority over an act of finlandization.
Note also that an act of finlandization is recorded without refer-
ence to the object of that finlandization.

This display comes up automatically at the beginning of each
turn; it is the most important display of the game.

Prestige Value -
--------------
This menu item displays the prestige value of each country;
that is, the value of that country towards your score.

Insurgency -
----------
This menu item presents the state of insurgency within each
country.

Coup D'Etat? -
------------
This item presents the likelihood that a government will fall to a
change of government or coup d'etat.

Finland - USA? -
--------------
This item presents the likelihood that a government will Finlandize
to the United States. Note that the information used to draw this
map is updated only at the beginning of each turn-year, and does
not take into account actions taken by you or your adversary in
the current year.

[page 55]

Finland - USSR? -
---------------
This item presents the likelihood that a government will
Finlandize to the Soviet Union. The same reservations cited
above apply here.

Countries at War -
----------------
This item shows all countries that are engaged in any wars.

Relations - 

This menu presents information on the policies and relationships
of countries. In the lower three levels of the game it applies only to
the two superpowers, but in the multipolar game it can be used
with any selected country. It is for this reason that this menu is
grayed out in the lower three levels unless a superpower is
selected. Each of the possible policy options is presented as an
item on the menu. By selecting that item, you can see the total
policy activity of that type undertaken by the selected country. For
example, to see all Soviet troop interventions for governments,
select the item "Interventions for Govt."

The "Diplomatic Relationships" menu item allows you to find out
the state of diplomatic relations between the selected country and
all other countries. When it is selected, countries are shaded
according to their diplomatic relationship with that selected coun-
try, with dark shading representing hostility and light shading
representing friendship.

The "Going Out" and "Going In" options are available only in the
Multipolar level game; they allow you to see how many troops or
weapons have been sent out of the country to foreign powers
or sent into the country by foreign powers.

[page 56]

Make Policies -

This is the menu that allows you to implement your decisions; it is
the only menu through which you actually win or lose the the game. All
of the other menus provide you with options for gathering infor-
mation; this one lets you take action. All of the options work in the
same fashion. Once you choose a policy direction, the computer
will load a dialog window from the disk and will present it for your
consideration. The current state of your policy towards the selected
country will be marked. You can change it by clicking the mouse
on any other option. At the bottom of the dialog window is a
button labelled "Enact." When you are satisfied with the state of
your policy, click that button. The window will close and you can
proceed with the game.

When you raise a policy window, some of the options might be
grayed out and therefore inaccessible. Policy options can be
grayed out for three reasons: diplomatic, budgetary, and physical.
The first restriction reflects the unwillingness of nations to accept
generosity from nations they regard as unfriendly. For example,
you are not allowed to give lots of military aid to VietNam. The
VietNamese would suspect some devious capitalist plot, and
besides, even if they would accept the money, Congress would
never stand for your giving aid to them. So you can't do nice
things for unfriendly nations.

[page 57]

The second restriction is budgetary. You are not allowed to give
away too much of your military budget to other nations. As you
give away more and more money, more and more of the nations
are grayed out, forcing you to give smaller and smaller amounts of 
money. The total amount of a resource that is still available is
presented at the bottom of the window.

The third restriction is physical. A billion dollars worth of weapons
is a lot of hardware; moving that or, say, 100,000 troops into a
country is a big logistical challenge. If the country is friendly, you
can always use its port facilities, but when you are shipping the
stuff in for the insurgency, the local government will not be so
accomodating. Accordingly, you need staging areas in a neigh-
boring country from which you can organize the shipment of the
goods across the border. For the purposes of this game, your
ability to build such staging areas is measured by the number of
troops you have stationed in the neighboring country. The rule
used is mathematically simple but cumbersome to express. Think
in terms of the step level of a policy, this arising from the fact that
all policy options have six steps or levels, ranging from 0 (nothing)
to 5 (the highest policy level). The rule for insurgency aid is that
the highest step level of insurgency aid you may provide is equal
to the highest step level of troops supporting governments in a
contiguous country, plus one. Thus, you may always ship the
lowest step level of weapons ($20 million worth) to any country.
The limit on sending troops to support insurgents is the highest
step level of troops supporting governments in a contiguous coun-
try. For example, if you have 20,000 troops in Honduras, then you
may send up to $1 billion to the Contras in Nicaragua, and up to
20,000 troops.

Policy options are presented in annualized figures but they remain
in force until repealed. For example, if you choose the foreign aid
option "$1 billion," then you are offering one billion dollars per
year to the recipient nation. Another billion dollars will be paid out
every year until you repeat the policy or the recipient government
rejects it.

Military Aid -
------------
This option allows you to provide weapons (but not soldiers) to a
friendly government. It will boost the military power of the govern-
ment, making it better able to withstand internal insurgencies and
external military pressure. If the country is in serious military
trouble, the aid will be greatly appreciated; if things are pretty

[page 58]

quiet, the country will be less appreciative. This means that you
can give aid to a country in trouble, earning a great deal of
friendship, and then take it away when the situation improves
without angering the recipient. So long as you continue to give aid
to that government, relations between your two countries will
improve in proportion to the amount of aid and the degree of need.

Aid to Insurgents -
-----------------
This option is only allowed if there is an insurgency going on in a
country. For example, the Soviet Union is free from the curse of
terrorism. Thus, you cannot ship weapons to the "Russian under-
ground" - there's nobody there to receive them!

Aid to insurgents, dollar for dollar, produces more bang for the
buck than aid to the government. That's because insurgents tend
to use their weapons more sparingly and more effectively than
government soldiers. Moreover, insurgents tend to buy their victo-
ries with a greater blood/bullet ratio than government troops use.
In other words, your investment of bullets is more than matched
by their investment of blood - so your investment is often more
meaningful here.

Aid to insurgents is constrained by the physical and budgetary
factors discussed above. You need to have a strong local insur-
gency to give lots of aid, and you will need troops stationed in a
contiguous country. You just can't subvert countries by remote
control - you've got to have your own troops next door.

This policy is quite provocative. It will certainly infuriate the gov-
ernment against which it is directed. This is not a good way to win
friends in the government.

Intervene for Government -
------------------------
This is a much more serious form of assistance. With this option
you send your troops to the country in question; there they stand
alongside the native government troops. If an insurgency is in
progress, they will fight the insurgents. The dangerous aspect of
intervention is the prospect of American and Soviet troops squar-
ing off in some remote corner of the world. Such action will not
directly precipitate a war, but it will harden attitudes on both sides
in such a way as to make a war very difficult to avoid. It also
increases the likelihood of a military crisis precipitating an acci-
dental nuclear war. When emotions run high, troops on alert tend

[page 59]

to get jumpy; when their fingers are on nuclear triggers, it's hard
to maintain full control of events.

It is possible to use intervention in a peaceful and constructive
manner. For example, the American troops currently stationed in
West Germany help stabilize an otherwise dangerous situation.
Without them, the Soviets might be tempted to invade West
Germany. Even more important than the deterrent effect on an
aggressor is the sense of security provided the client. Troops
stationed inside a country are a palpable demonstration of sup-
port that bolsters a country's willingness to stand up to an
intimidating enemy. Moreover, the psychological effect of such
intervention is greater then the number of troops actually commit-
ted. All parties know that, for every soldier actually based in the
country, there are several more in the home country who could be
deployed in an emergency. Thus, intervention is an excellent way
to support beleaguered government, so long as they are not
actually caught up in fighting. Once the shooting starts, the situa-
tion becomes very delicate.

This policy option can be very provocative to all interested parties.

Intervene for Rebels -
--------------------
This option allows you to send your troops into a country to
support the heroic freedom fighters (known to the government as
"bloodthirsty terrorists"). This is the modern-day (and often con-
troversial) way to invade a country. In earlier times, such action
would have been interpreted as starting a war; in today's world we
say that we are only "intervening" in support of the legitimate
insurgency. And when those freedom fighters win the civil war, our
hope is that they will of course be grateful for our assistance and
reward it with friendly relations.

Aside from the logistical restrictions on being able to intervene
(you must have troops in a neighboring country), the act of inter-
vention is similar to the act of intervention for the government. It is
just as risky and even more infuriating to the other superpower.
Use this one with caution.

Economic Aid -
------------
This option allows you to provide economic assistance to another
nation. The economic assistance is a direct transfer of money
from your GNP to the recipient's; it does not directly affect any-
body's military potential. However, it does have an effect on both

[page 60]

countries. Your GNP growth is deleteriously affected, while the
recipient's GNP growth is boosted. This is a good way to bolster 
the popular support of a friendly government. Of course, it will
also improve diplomatic relations between your two countries in
proportion to the degree of need (likelihood of a coup). You
should give generously to friendly countries whose governments
are in danger of a coup, then remove the aid once the crisis is
averted or resolved; their resentment at losing all those free bil-
lions of dollars will be less when their economic situation is under
control. Moreover, economic aid is generally viewed as a benign
action. It is unlikely that your opponent will start a crisis over this
option, and it would not be wise for you to start a crisis over such
action, except in countries that are firmly in your sphere of
influence.

Destabilize -
-----------
This option allows you to "send in the spooks." If you are playing
as the American, you send in the CIA; if you are playing as the
Soviet, you send in the KGB. In either case, their orders are the
same: to spread unrest and dissension within the country in the 
hope of triggering a coup d'etat. The greater the intensity of
destabilization you opt for, the greater the probability of achieving
a successful coup. Destabilization is a one-shot affair; it is not
automatically renewed each year as the other policies are. If you
wish to engage in long-running destabilization against a country,
you must explicitly re-authorize the destabilization each year.

Treaty -
------
The treaty option allows you to certify your level of support for
another government. The treaties range from mere diplomatic
relations to nuclear mutual defense. The real significance of trea-
ties is that commit you to supporting the government in
greater or lesser degrees. Thus, if you sign a nuclear defense
treaty with a foreign government, you are guaranteeing the
security of that government against all threats. You should take
whatever steps are necessary to protect that government. If, for
any reason, that government falls to rebels or a coup, your inter-
national credibility, and the value of the treaties you sign, will fall
in proportion to the strength of the commitment you made.

Treaties are a very economical way to boost a nation's will to resist
aggression. They cost nothing by themselves, and will always
generate good will with the recipient. The only danger with a
treaty is that you must be prepared to live up to your treaty

[page 61]

commitments. In dealing with the Soviet Union, you must also
consider the Soviet treaty commitments. You must handle very
carefully those nations with which the Soviets have strong treaty
commitments, with great deference to Soviet wishes. Like you, the
Soviets cannot afford to have their closest clients destabilized.

Once signed, you cannot repudiate a treaty; the other country can
repudiate it if it undergoes a coup d'etat or rebels win a civil war.
There is one way that you can be forced out of a treaty you have
signed. If the opposing player starts a crisis over a treaty, and the
singing player backs down, then the treaty is null and void. Other-
wise, it is permanent.

Diplomatic Pressure -
-------------------
This option allows you to "lean on" any foreign country. This is
always a negative action taken against unfriendly nations. Its
purpose is to intimidate that nation, making it feel a greater sense
of insecurity, in the hope that it will Finlandize. Moreover, pressure
can induce the victim to increase its military spending as a form
of self-defense. This in turn forces the government to cut into
consumer spending, an act that will increase public dissatisfac-
tion with the regime and could lead to a coup d'etat or change of
government. Thus, pressure can sometimes cause a coup d'etat.
Unlike most other options, pressure is not an ongoing process;
it is a one-time action that automatically terminates after one year.

Trade -
-----
This option allows you to restrict trade with another country.
This is a diplomatic maneuver that won't have any effect on the
country's economy, but has some value for posturing.

Events -

This menu gives information on events. Events are presented in
the form of headlines. They are grouped into folders to make it

[page 62]

easier for you to peruse them. Each folder is represented by one
menu item.

Newspaper -
---------
This option applies only to the selected nation, and is grayed out
when no nation is selected. When chosen, it presents a news-
paper for the selected country, presenting information on events
that concern the country. Every headline tells you something about
the country, and sometimes a careful reading will give you valu-
able details. For example, where are the rebels fighting? In remote
villages or in the capital? If they are fighting in the capital, then
surely the rebels are doing very well against the government.

A newspaper can have many pages; you can flip through the
pages with the "Next" and "Previous." If a newspaper headline

[page 63]

concerns a provocative act by the Soviet Union, you may be able
to "Question" that act, in which case the "Question" button at
the bottom of the newspaper will activate. For more details on this
option, see the section on Crises. When you are done reading
the newspaper, click the close box in the upper left corner
of the window.

USSR Actions -
------------
This folder presents all provocative actions taken by the Soviets
that you may wish to challenge through a crisis. This is a very
good folder to check at the beginning of each turn; it gives you an
idea of what those tricky Soviet have been up to.

USSR Other -
----------
This folder contains Soviet actions that you probably won't wish to
challenge. Most of it is pretty boring stuff, troop pullouts and the
like. Although it's not the stuff of Armageddon, it is sometimes
useful to know where they are pulling out; you never know when a
golden opportunity might present itself.

USA Actions -
-----------
This folder corresponds to the "USSR Actions" folder, except it
holds American actions. This is of interest if you are playing as the
Soviet leader, or if you are the American and can't remember what
you have already done this turn.

USA Other -
---------
This folder corresponds to the "USSR Other" folder except that it
holds boring American actions.

Minor Country News -
------------------
This folder contains news about non-superpowers. In the lower
levels, it is news that is internal to the country, such as revolu-
tions, declarations of provisional revolutionary governments,
coups, and acts of finlandization. In the Multipolar level, it also
contains news about policy decisions made by the minor coun-
tries. Some of these policy decisions you may be able to challenge,
depending on your influence with the offending country.

[page 64]

Briefing -

This menu contains items that give you more detailed information.
These items take a little more time to go through, but give you
more meat.

Closeup -
-------
This item opens up a large window that displays a great deal of
information about the selected country. You get a complete sum-
mary of your policies towards that country, as well as the policies
of your adversary. Those policies that are at their maximum value,
for either diplomatic or budgetary reasons, are enclosed in brack-
ets. An arrow next to a policy value indicates whether the value
was recently increased or decreased. At the bottom of the window
is information on the domestic state of the country. Note that for
the state of insurgency, likelihood of a coup, and likelihood of
Finlandization, the value is presented as well as the rate of change
in the value.

This window can also be obtained by double-clicking on a country.

History -
-------
This window presents the history of the selected country. There
is a great deal of information presented here, compressed into
a small space, so the display can be a little cryptic at first. If you
read it carefully, though, you'll find a great deal of information
about the country.

This option is not very useful at the beginning of the game when
you have little history to show; its value comes later
in the game.

The information is presented in nine charts. Three rules are used
in presenting information. First, white or light gray shading indi-
cates the USA, while black or dark gray shading indicates the
USSR. Second, solid colors indicate policies that help the govern-
ment, while gray colors indicate policies that hurt the government.
Third, parallel vertical lines indicate a major event: a revolution,
coup, or an act of Finlandization.

The first graph in the top left corner presents the course of the
insurgency. A high value indicates a civil war; a low value indi-
cates a state of peace. A revolution is marked by two parallel
vertical lines. The political stance of the government is indicated

[page 65]

by the color of the squares that mark the level of insurgency:
black squares indicates a left-wing government, while white squares
indicate a right-wing government.

Below this graph is a bar chart of weapons shipments to both
sides. Remember, pro-government policies are presented in solid
color, while pro-insurgent policies are shown in shaded bars.
Thus, a light gray bar indicates American weapons shipments to
insurgents, while a solid black bar indicates Soviet weapons
shipments to the government.

The lowest graph in the first column presents information on inter-
ventions, using the same scheme as was used in the middle graph.

The first graph in the middle column presents the history of
government stability. A high value here indicates a stable govern-
ment, a low value indicates an unstable government. Parallel
vertical lines indicate a coup. The graph below it shows the
superpower policies related to the stability of the government.
Pro-government policies (economic aid) are presented in solid
color, while anti-government policies (destabilization) are
shown in gray.

The lowest graph in the middle column shows the evolution of the
diplomatic relationships between the country in question and the
two superpowers. A high value on the graph indicates a friendly
relationship, while a low value indicates an unfriendly one.

The top graph in the third column shows the proclivity towards
finlandization within the country. Two curves are drawn, one for
finlandization towards the USA and the other for finlandization
towards the USSR. Two parallel vertical lines denote an act
of finlandization.

The second graph in the third column shows the superpower
policies that affect Finlandization: treaties and pressure.
The same system is used to indicate USA and USSR actions, and
pro-government policies (treaties) and anti-government
policies (pressure).

The last graph in the third column shows the general insecurity
experienced by the country over time. This is an amalgam of its
insurgency problems as well as its perception of superpower
attitudes. This is the factor that controls military spending.

[page 66]

Background -

This menu item opens up a new mode of operation of the game.
This mode is not necessary to the play of the game. It presents
information that is interesting and useful for someone unfamiliar
with the countries of the world. It is, in a word, background
information. You can play the game without ever consulting the
background option. It is included for your curiosity. You may find
the information presented to be interesting.

If you select the background option, the game will be suspended;
the menubar will be replaced by a new menubar with completely
new menu options.

Resume Game -
-----------
This menu has but a single entry: "Yes, Resume Game." If you
select this option, the original menubar will reappear and you can
resume play of the game.

Resources Map -
-------------
This menu allows you to investigate the internal resources of the
nations of the world and how they are expended. It allows a
variety of options for seeing the data. If you have selected a
country and its name appears at the top of the map, then the data
presented will all be relative to the country, with countries having
a higher value of the quantity being shaded dark gray and coun-
tries having a lower value of the quantity being shaded light gray.
If you have instead selected no country (by pressing the mouse
button while the cursor is over the ocean), then you will obtain a
display of absolute ranks of the currently selected quantity. The
computer will sort all the countries in the game by their values of
the quantity, and will shade them according to their rank. The
highest quartile countries (that is, those countries in the top 25%)
will be shaded dark gray. The countries in the second quartile will
be shaded gray. Third quartile countries are shaded light gray,
and fourth quartile countries are white. The menu items allow you
to examine different quantities.

GNP -
---
This is Gross National Product, the measure of the total value of
the goods and services produced by the country. Loosely speak-
ing, GNP is a measure of how wealthy the country is. GNP is
divided among three sectors: military, consumer, and investment.

[page 67]

Military Spending -
-----------------
This is the first factor in overall military power, the second being
number of soldiers (military personnel).

Consumer Spending -
-----------------
This is the amount of money spent on the material well-being of
the population. It is the total amount of money spent on food,
clothing, shelter, entertainment, and all the other things that peo-
ple need, use, and enjoy. The popularity of the government is
directly tied to the rate of increase of consumer spending per
capita per year. If consumer spending per capita does not increase
quickly enough, the popularity of the government will fall; if this
continues too long, the government will be vulnerable to a change
of executive, be it a revolution, coup d'etat, or elective ouster.
Thus, the government cannot afford to cut consumer spending to
provide more money for its military. A government under con-
siderable external military pressure will cut into its consumer
spending as an act of desperation. Thus, a large enough military
threat can result in the fall of a foreign government.

Investment Spending -
-------------------
This is the amount of money expended on capital that will allow
the GNP to grow. This money goes for roads, dams, schools,
factories, and the like. Investment spending generates GNP growth.
If a government attempts to cut investment spending too heavily,
internal pressures generated by interest rates will eventually force
it to restore the investment money. You will see none of these
processes on the screen, only their result in terms of military,
consumer, and investment spending.

Population -
----------
This is simply the total number of people living in the country.

Military Personnel -
------------------
This is the number of people directly employed by the country's
military forces. Roughly, it is the number of soldiers in the army.
Together with military spending, this forms the basis of 
military power.

[page 68]

Per Capita -
----------
This option allows you to see each of the above variables pre-
sented on a per capita basis. This can be critically important. For
example, India has a fairly high GNP, yet its very high population
drives its GNP per capita down. Thus, although India might look
very rich on the GNP map, the GNP per capita map reveals the
extent of Indian poverty. Similarly, Libya has a very low GNP, but
when one examines its GNP per capita, Libya comes out looking
very wealthy indeed.

Per capita information is also useful for other purposes. An inter-
esting item to consider is the variable "military personnel per
capita." This indicates the proportion of the population serving in
the armed forces. On this basis, Israel becomes quite prominent,
for a gigantic percentage of Israelis serve in the Israeli
armed forces.

Per GNP -
-------
This gives you an idea of how much money is allocated for
different purposes. For example, "consumer spending per GNP"
will show you the percentage of the total GNP that is spent on
consumers, while "military spending per GNP" will show you the
percentage of the total GNP that is spent on the military. Again,
these numbers can be quite interesting and give you a much
clearer idea of what is going on in the world.

Per Nothing -
-----------
Select this item when you wish to see a quantity undivided by
anything. It cancels out the "per capita" or "per GNP" option.

Well-Being -
----------
This menu allows you to examine a variety of factors related to the
quality of life in each country of the world. The factors presented
are: Literacy, Energy Consumption, Caloric Intake, Physicians per
Million, Infant Mortality, School Enrollment, Televisions per capita,
and Telephones per capita. The modifying terms from the previous
menu ("per capita" and "per GNP") do not apply to the items on
this menu.

[page 69]

Violence -
--------
This menu presents a number of factors that indicate the degree
of violence that has characterized the political life of the country.
These factors can be examined in either their direct form or
on a per capita basis. This makes it easier to directly compare
the level of violence in populous countries with that of less
populous countries.

It is important to note that the data used for this menu are based
on events in the time period 1948-1977. This period was wracked
by a great deal of violence during its first decade. Thus, the levels
of violence presented here may surprise you. For example, the
number of political executions in China is somewhat misleading.
For technical reasons, I had to present only a small fraction of the
true number of such executions. My source ascribes 1,633,319
political executions to China. This makes China look quite blood-
thirsty. But 1,631,497 of those executions took place in the period
1948-1952, during the period immediately after the civil war between
the Chinese communists and the nationalists. One can under-
stand that a civil war would trigger a great many executions.
Similarly, the nearly 2 million deaths from political violence
ascribed to Nigeria may surprise those who do not remember the
Biafran civil war of 1968-70.

On the other hand, some modern events do not show up in the
data used for these maps. The revolution that toppled the Shah of
Iran does not show up on these maps, making Iran look like a 
bastion of peace and stability. The genocide in Kampuchea,
unknown to the world in 1977, is also not evident in this data.

Political -
---------
This menu presents information on the political and civil rights
obtained in each country. The scores are mean values of indexes
coded annually by Raymond D. Gastil, published by Freedom
House, and presented in World Handbook of Political and Social
Indicators (Taylor and Jodice).

GNP %-ages -
----------
This menu provides information on the way that resources are
used inside an economy. The values shown are all percentages of
the Gross National Product. These items tell you how much of the
GNP goes to or comes from different areas of the economy. The
only confusing item here is the one labelled "Taxes"; it really

[page 70]

concerns the total amount of GNP that is consumed by the gov-
ernment. The "Trade" item show the amount of international
trade as a percentage of GNP.

Superpower Crisis -

This is not a menu option, but it can be generated either by your
actions or by Soviet reactions to your policies. A crisis is gener-
ated whenever one superpower objects to a policy action by the
other. You can generate a crisis by pressing the "Question" button
in the "USSR Actions" folder or the newspaper. The Soviets can
generate a crisis during their turn by questioning one of your
actions. Thus, every crisis has an initiator (the side that started
the crisis) and a respondent.

The following sequence of events takes place when you are the
initiator: You observe a Soviet action that you do not like;let's say
the Soviets are sending weapons to support the Communist Tudeh
insurgency in Iran, an act you find unacceptable. You press the
"Question" button. This communicates to the USSR your displea-
sure over the action.

The Soviets now have two options: they can stick to their guns, or
they can back down. In choosing between the options, they will
consider the importance of the policy to their own plans, as well
as their assessment of its importance to you. The case of Iran is
useful: the Soviets know that the destabilization of the Iranian
government is not crucial to their security, yet they also know that
American relations with Iran are poor and the Americans will
probably not go out on a limb for the Iranian government. Let us
say that they decide they can win this crisis; they therefore refuse
to back down, and respond by protesting. A message from the
Soviet Union conveying this response will appear in the lower half
of the window.

To help you with your decision, a special "Crisis Advisory" comes
up next to the Crisis window. This box shows some additional
information that might be useful in deciding what to do next.

Now the ball is back in your court. You now have the same
options the Soviets had. You can continue to press your case, or
you can back down. If you back down at this early stage, the
matter is resolved quietly and neither side suffers any loss. If you
do not wish to back down, you must raise the stakes. The word
"Question" has been replaced by "Challenge." If you press this

[page 71]

button, you are taking the crisis public and raising it another
notch, indicating your resolve. Now that the crisis has gone pub-
lic, the whole world will be watching. Whichever side backs down
will lose considerable prestige. The amount of prestige at stake is
displayed at the very bottom of the window. The number pre-
sented represents the amount of prestige that you will lose if you
decide to back down at this point. Your opponent will lose a
similar amount of prestige if he backs down. Note that, as the
crisis escalates, these numbers rise. It is unwise to push a crisis
too far without good reason, for the loss you suffer can become
considerable. Indeed, the amount of prestige you can lose in a
crisis can well be greater than the amount you would lose if the
country became an outright Soviet ally.

Let's say that you choose to escalate; you press the "Challenge"
button. The window title changes to "Diplomatic Crisis" to reflect
the new state of affairs. Now the ball is back in the Soviets' court.
If they refuse to back down, then it comes back to you, with
considerably more at stake. If you back down, the crisis is over,
and you have lost considerable face. The world will make note of
the fact that the Americans talk big, but fold up when you call their
bluff. Countries that had been rooting for you will be disgusted
and angry at your lack of backbone; countries that had opposed
you will hold you in contempt. The Soviet Union will be especially
encouraged by your backing down, and will take increasingly
more aggressive policies, knowing that you don't have the back-
bone to stand up to them.

Let's say you choose to escalate, they again must choose between
escalation and retreat. This time, though, the diplomatic options
have been exhausted. The only escalatory option available to the
USSR is to raise its forces to DefCon 4. "DefCon" is a notation for
the state of readiness of a superpower's military forces. It uses
the following table:

DefCon 5: Peace, minimum readiness

DefCon 4: Low level of readiness

DefCon 3: Alert; forces ready for combat on short notice

DefCon 2: Maximum alert, all forces ready at a moment's notice

DefCon 1: War

The Soviet Union, if it chooses to escalate to DefCon 4, will do so
as a means of demonstrating its determination to prevail in this
dispute. Going to DefCon 4 sends the message, "We are prepar-
ing to fight you over this issue, if need be."

[page 72]

Going to DefCon 4 also changes the nature of the crisis dramati-
cally. Earlier it was merely a diplomatic crisis, and only prestige
was at stake. Now it has become a military crisis (and is noted as
such), and the risk of accidental nuclear war exists. The better
your relations with the Soviets, the lower the chance of accidental
nuclear war. The worse those relations, the greater the chance of
accidental Armageddon.

With the ball back in your court, you must again face the ugly
choice between a retreat that could damage your diplomatic posi-
tion and an escalation that could lead to war. If you wish to
escalate, you must move to DefCon 3.

The Soviets may be intimidated by your demonstration of resolve.
If so, they will back down. If not, they will go to DefCon 2, a state
just short of war. The bombers are in the air, the fingers are
poised over fatal buttons. You have the same two options: back
down or escalate. Only this time, to escalate is to start World War
III. If this happens, you lose the game. You have painted yourself
into a corner and must back down, suffering the consequent loss
of prestige.

If the Soviets initiate the crisis, then your last choice in this
escalatory sequence will be to go to DefCon 2. If you take this
option, the fate of the world is in Soviet hands. They may launch
or they may back down.

Note that the amount of prestige lost by the loser of a crisis is
proportional to the level of the crisis. If you back down at DefCon
2, you will pay a much higher price than if you back down at
"Challenge." It is therefore unwise to push a crisis further than
absolutely necessary.

Minor Country Crisis -

This crisis can only arise in the Multipolar level game, and then
only by your choice to do so. It operates much like the regular
superpower crisis, except that it cannot end in a nuclear war, and
you do not lose prestige by backing down. It is a way of pressur-
ing a minor country into abandoning a policy that you don't like. It
does cost you diplomatic affinity with the victim; the higher you
escalate the crisis, the greater the chance of pressuring the
victim, and the greater the loss of diplomatic affinity.

[page 73]

End of Game -
-----------
The game ends when a nuclear war starts. Only superpower
crises can start nuclear war. You always lose if a nuclear war
starts; no points are awarded for any progress you had made. A
nuclear war is always a total loss for both sides.

The game can also end when you reach the year 1997. In this
event, a final score window is presented; you win if your score
exceeds your opponent's score. You can still consult the history
charts and other information utilities before quitting the game.

[page 74]

(BLANK)

[page 75]

How Realistic is the Game ?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition provides an instructive simu-
lation of global power politics. Players may want to know just how
realistic this game is. The answer is tricky to explain.

Most people think of realism as a desirable trait that is approxi-
mated to a greater or lesser degree by any game or simulation.
They judge a simulation the same way one might judge the quality
of a photograph - on its fidelity, crispness, and accuracy. The truth
is much more complex than that. Any game deliberately simplifies
reality to emphasize some aspect of the world. In this sense, a
game is more like a painting than a photograph. The painter does
not slavishly copy the image his eyes behold - he emphasizes
those things that are important about what he sees while eliminat-
ing unimportant aspects of the image. So too does the game
designer eliminate some things from a game and emphasize
others. This game is no exception. In designing it, I deliberately
threw out many important elements of international relations to
focus the player's attention on those elements that I thought most
important. Thus, trade was stripped out completely, even though it
plays a significant role in modern geopolitics. On the other hand,
the nature of insurgencies was given great attention by the game,
because I think that insurgencies are one of the vehicles of
competition between the superpowers. Does the lack of trade
make the game less realistic? Does the detailed handling of insur-
gency make the game more realistic?

These things said, there are still some issues related to the broad
subject of realism that need clarification. For example, you might
wonder about the accuracy of some of the numbers used in the
game. This game does use a great many numbers that are objec-
tively verifiable; are these numbers reliable? I can assure players
that most of the numbers used in this game were researched
wherever possible. For example, GNP data is quite easy to obtain,
and military spending figures are commonly available, although
there are many disagreements among the various sources.

[page 76]

One of my most useful resources was the World Handbook of
Political and Social Indicators, Third Edition, by Taylor and Jodice
(Yale University Press, 1983). This magnificent document presents
a mountain of data on all the nations of the world: everything from
"Public Health Expenditure as a Percentage of Gross National
Product" to "Television Sets Per Thousand Population." Many of
the numbers used in the background section of this program
were calculated from data found in this reference.

Some important information I was not able to find and so was
forced t create. Yes, I readily admit fabricating information that
was not available. A text author can simply leave out information
that is not available, but a game designer is not so fortunate. A
game is an engine with moving parts; if one of the parts cannot
be taken off the shelf, it must be fabricated by hand or the game
simply won't work. So I invented the data in several key areas. For
example, I made up the data for political philosophy, the degree to
which a government leans to the right wing or to the left wing.
Other factors that were fabricated were the resistance of a gov-
ernment to insurgency, the strength of democratic traditions within
the country, and a variety of minor factors.

Another factor to remember is the fact that only 80 of the more
than 170 nations of the world are represented in the game. One
might think that eliminating half of all the countries of the world
would make the game hopelessly simplistic, but indeed most of
those rejected countries are truly insignificant. How many people
have even heard of the Seychelles, Lesotho, Andorra, or Sierra 
Leone? Of course, there were a number of sizable countries that
were lost in the shuffle, countries whose loss might seem surprising:
El Salvador, Cambodia, Lebanon, and Bangladesh. These coun-
tries were rejected for a variety of reasons. In many cases, a
country was simply so small that I could not make it visible on the
map. In a few cases, I felt that the country could easily be repre-
sented by other countries. In eliminating nations, I tried to retain
the central conflicts that drive international relationships.

The most important realism issue, though, is probably the one
that will generate the fewest questions, and that concerns the
dynamics of the simulation. How does a nation's GNP change
from year to year? I have a formula for that; is it a realistic
formula? What about the equations that govern the progress of an
insurgency, or the fall of a government, or the determination of
foreign policy? Even more important, what about the equations

[page 77]

that determine how the Soviets will behave in a crisis? Under-
standing Soviet behavior is vitally important to the very survival of
this country, and many brilliant scholars devote much energy to
understanding their behavior, and I have reduced it all to a few
simple equations. How do we know that any of the equations are 
any good at all?

The answer to all of these questions is, we don't know. There is no
way to reconcile the soft pastels and subtle shifting shades of
reality with the simple hard numbers of a computer program. A
painting does not capture reality in its entirety, and neither does a
program. The significant question is, does this game capture the
feel of reality? Does it seem right to you? Ultimately, the value of
the game is measured against your own understanding of interna-
tional relations. So long as you must ask somebody else whether
the game is realistic, then the game has something to teach you. It
is my hope that this game will challenge you, make you think
about the dynamics of the world, encourage you to learn more
about this deadly competition at which we superpowers play. If
you rise to this challenge, then the day will come when you can
judge for yourself the realism of this game. Later still, the day will
come when you can clearly see the many, many flaws in this
game. When that day comes, this game will have achieved the
goal I set for it.

[page 78]

(BLANK)

[page 79]

Models Used in the Simulation 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
This game uses a large and intricate set of models to determine
the behavior of the actors. As complex as all the cosmetic ele-
ments may seem, the invisible internals are even more complex.
They take up more code and consume more memory than the
visible portions of the program. They present me with a serious
documentation problem. The player has a real need to know what
is going on inside the program, for this is the only way that s/he
can come to understand the game and play well. Yet, if I simply
publish source code for the program, much of the fantasy of the
game is ruined for the player. The moviegoer doesn't want to
know that the horrible monster is really just a clay model cleverly
photographed; the game-player doesn't want to know that he is
playing against a mere set of equations.

My approach to solving this problem is to sketch the outlines of
the models used. I won't give away dirty details, but I will try to
explain it well enough that you can understand what factors are
included and what factors are not included. I will follow no partic-
ular order here but will instead tackle subjects in random order.

Military Power -

Military power springs from two factors: military spending and
military personnel. Some armies are money-heavy and soldier-
poor; the American army is the most extreme example of this, but
all the Western armies tend to follow this pattern. Poor nations
tend to have armies that are money-poor and manpower-heavy.
Military power is based on both of these; the more money and
more manpower the government throws at its army, the more
powerful it will be.

The amount of manpower available to a government is based on
the population and the "draft fraction," the percentage of the
population that the government has typically drafted in times past.

Military power is augmented by the contributions of superpowers.
Military aid is added directly to the military budget of the country;
this is most effective with poor countries. Superpower troops
that intervene in favor of the government are not integrated into

[page 80]

the host army; they bring a proportional amount of the super-
power's military power with them. This additional military power
is directly added to the country's military power.

Casualties from fighting the insurgency serve to reduce the mili-
tary power of the government. Over a period of time, these
casualties can produce a steady degradation of the government's
military power. This effect can be observed in the History charts
on insurgency.

Insurgency -

The local insurgency also has its own military power. It is derived
from an entirely different source. The source of manpower is
based on three factors: the total population of the country, the
cultural proclivity of the people towards violent solutions to politi-
cal problems, and the past record of success of the insurgency. In
other words, some countries, such as West Germany or Canada,
are not inclined towards insurgency. Other countries, mostly those
without a long tradition of stable governmental institutions, are
more likely to have a large portion of their populations run off to
join the guerrillas. The other factor is the record of success of the
insurgency. As they start to win, everybody wants to get in on the
bandwagon. Thus, it is crucial that an insurgency be nipped in
the bud. Once it gets momentum, it takes greater amounts
of power to stop.

The manpower of an insurgency is normally much greater than
the amount of weaponry it can assemble. Typically, insurgencies
fight with military power that is very manpower-heavy and weapon-
poor. This is why small amounts of aid to an insurgency can have
a large effect on the success of the Insurgency. Again, a direct
intervention results in the intervening superpower's military power
being directly injected into the insurgency.

Each year, the insurgency and the government shoot each other
up. Each side suffers losses. If the insurgency ever comes out of
the battle more powerful than the government, it is declared the
winner of the revolution. Otherwise, it bides its time and waits.

Economics Processing -

Each country has a Gross National Product (GNP). This GNP is
divided among three areas: military spending, investment spend-
ing, and consumer spending. Military spending goes for weapons.
Investment spending goes for roads, schools, factories, and other

[page 81]

things that will make the economy grow. The amount of invest-
ment spending determines the rate of growth of the GNP. Consumer
spending goes for food, clothing, housing, and all the things that
consumers like.

The government of each country allocates its GNP among these
three areas according to a nifty little algorithm that cleanly takes
into account the pressures on that country. Military pressure in
the form of a powerful insurgency or a threatening superpower is
translated into pressure to increase the military portion of the
budget. However, consumers expect the consumer portion of the
GNP to increase by about 2% per year; if the government fails to
meet this objective, its popularity falls. If the government's
popularity falls below zero, it's time for a coup d'etat. Thus, the
government's popularity acts as a pressure to increase consumer
spending. Then there is always some pressure to maintain at least
a small amount of investment spending to allow the GNP to grow.
These three pressures are translated into a division of the GNP
between the competing needs, and the spending figures are
decided.

Crisis Artificial Intelligence -

How does the computer decide whether to escalate or to back
down? This is a vitally important question, the answer to which
may surprise you. Some playtesters have been quite confused by
the computer's behavior. In some cases, they simply could not
believe that the computer would take a crisis so far over such a 
trivial issue. Here's the logic:

The central idea to understand is the concept of import. In this
game, import is the degree to which a superpower becomes
upset over a particular action. Import is in turn based on two
factors: hurt and care. Hurt is a measure of just how much a
particular action hurts (or helps) its object. Thus, if you destabilize
a country, that constitutes a hurt. The amount of hurt for any given
action is calculated by the program and used to calculate import.
The second factor involved, though, is care. Care is the extent to
which the superpower cares about the country in question. If he
doesn't care very much, then the import is small even if the hurt is
large. Care is based on four factors: the superpower's diplomatic
affinity for the object country, their treaty relationship, the degree
to which the object country is within the superpower's sphere of
influence, and whether the policy at stake involves the use of
intervening troops (this is a particularly sensitive issue).

[page 82]

Import is thus calculated for both superpowers. The computer
player then compares its import with the import calculated for the
human player. If its own import is much higher, then it will stand
firm and refuse to back down. If its own import is much lower,
then it will back down. Finally, if the two imports are close to each
other, it will "flip a weighted coin" to determine the outcome.

This system produces some behaviors that may surprise you. For
example, suppose that you as the American player gave eco-
nomic aid to Nigeria. The Soviets take objection to this and start a
crisis. You escalate, they escalate, and a nuclear war starts. The
question on your lips is, why would those idiots annihilate the
world over economic aid to Nigeria? The answer is, because you
were willing to annihilate the world over Nigeria. Remember, it
takes two to make a crisis. The computer figured that this just
wasn't an important issue for you, and that, while trivial, it was still
a more important issue for itself. It therefore stuck to its guns.

The surprising element here is anticipation. The computer attempts
to anticipate your priorities. It assesses a variety of factors such
as your diplomatic affinity toward Nigeria, your treaty relationships
with Nigeria, your demonstrated record of integrity in defending
your treaty clients, and your sphere of influence. It concluded
from past history that economic aid to Nigeria was simply not very
important to you.

This raises a very important point about geopolitics. You could 
protest loudly, "But I do care about Nigeria! The computer can't
assume what I'm really thinking!" You are absolutely right. Real-
world diplomats don't know what is truly going on in the minds of
their interlocutors. They know perfectly well that today's words are
only an expression of today's exigencies. The only thing they can
rely on are the substantial events of the past. If you have built up a
record of close relations with Nigeria, your behavior in a crisis will
have to be taken seriously. If your record is of weak relations, then
your crisis behavior has to be a bluff. The computer treats it that
way. If you want to convince people that you're serious, you've got
to lay the groundwork.

This point cause more problems in the first edition of Balance of
Power than any other. I have heard many objections from players,
and read many objections from reviewers, faulting the game for
this action. People just can't seem to accept this behavior in the
game. They fail to understand the alternative. Suppose that I put
in some sort of "reasonableness" algorithm for the computer

[page 83]

player, an algorithm that allowed the computer to say, "This is too
trivial an item over which to blow up the world - I'll let it pass."
Then it would be a trivial matter to win the game by engaging in
unreasonable behavior. You simply go all over the world picking
trivial fights with the computer, knowing full well that, reasonable
creature that it is, it will surely back down. Each time, you pick up
a few points. Do you really think that this would be a better game
if it taught the lesson that irresponsible, unreasonable behavior on
America's part is the way to geopolitical success?

Finlandization -

The decision to Finlandize is based on a simple calculation that
attempt to answer the question, "Does either superpower have
the strength to overwhelm me, and would be use it?" Thus, if
Canada has good relations with the USA, then Canada would
never Finlandize, because the USA would never attack a friend.
On the other hand, if relations soured, then Canada might come
to fear an American attack, and would forestall such a possibility
by Finlandizing first.

Another side to this question of whether a superpower would
attack is the superpower's "adventurousness." This is the degree
to which a superpower demonstrates a willingness to engage in
dangerous or provocative behavior to further its own interests.
Every time you ship troops around the world, give weapons to
insurgents, or escalate in a crisis, you magnify your image as an
adventurous superpower. This in turn makes minor countries more
fearful of you. It also, of course, goads your opponent into like
behavior. In other words, act tough and everyone will Finlandize to
you - but the Soviets will get tougher, too.

The other aspect of Finlandization is projected military power. The
amount of military power that you can project into a country is the
primary determinant of its likelihood of Finlandization. Contiguity
plays a large role in this determination. You can be sure, Mexico
and Canada will always be your friends. If you place American
troops in a country, that country acts as a base from which you
project power to all its neighbors; the amount of power that you
project is proportional to the number of troops you place.

Coups D'Etat -

As I wrote earlier, coups are caused by failure to meet consumer
expectations for increasing consumer spending. However, this is
modified somewhat by the nature of the country. Countries with
 
[page 84]

extremist governments tend to be more repressive, and can main-
tain themselves against consumer unrest more readily that more
centrist governments can. Thus, Western democracies will tend to
change governments more readily than, say, Eastern bloc coun-
tries or Latin American dictatorships, but when they do change,
the political swings are not as violent.

Diplomatic Affinity -

This is the quantity that you attempt to change in your attempt to
garner points. Prestige is the product of diplomatic affinity and
military power. You cannot do much to influence military power, 
but you can do a great deal to change a country's diplomatic
affinity towards you and your opponent. There are five ways that
diplomatic affinity will change: insurgency, coup d'etat, finlandi-
zation, reactions to crises, and reactions to policies.

When a revolution occurs, the country undergoes a major change
in its diplomatic relationships. If you were assisting the govern-
ment in any way, the new government will treat you coldly. If you
were assisting the insurgents, the new government will be grateful
and will initiate a warm relationship. Moreover, there is an intrinsic
bias based on the political stance of the new government. Left-
wing governments tend toward good relations with the Soviet
Union, while right-wing governments lean toward the United States.
These are only leanings, however, not ironclad laws.

A government's behavior after a coup is similar to its behavior
after a revolution, but not as extreme in nature. The new govern-
ment's diplomatic affinities will shift based on its political leanings,
but it will not shun a superpower for having given aid to the old
government. If the superpower had assisted the coup with some
destabilization, the new government will reward the assistance
with somewhat better relations.

Finlandization has already been explained clearly elsewhere. The
Finlandizing government adjusts its diplomatic affinities to be
closer to the feared superpower and further away from its opponent.

Reactions to crises are the shifts in diplomatic affinities associ-
ated with your performance in a crisis. If you win the crisis, each
nation of the world will like you a tiny bit more; if you lose, each
nation will dislike you a tiny bit more.

[page 85]

Reactions to policies are based on the amount of hurt or help
done by the superpower, and their effects are restricted to the
object of the policy. Thus, if you do something nice for somebody,
they will like you for it; if you do something nasty, they will resent
you. Other minor countries will not care about your policy; each
minor country cares only for itself. (This was, for me, a painful
concession to playability). The response of a minor country to a
policy action is proportional to the value of that policy. For exam-
ple, economic aid to a poor country desperately in need of aid will
be greatly appreciated, while the same amount of aid to a country
that is doing well will not have so large an effect. Similarly, military
aid to country is appreciated in proportion to the country's
perceived need for military aid. This does not work with negative
actions, though. No matter what the situation is, aid to insurgents
will infuriate the government. They will not shrug it off with the
observation that the insurgents are too weak to do much
harm anyway.

[page 86]

(BLANK)

[page 87]

Acknowledgements 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I conceived, designed, programmed, developed, and tested this
game. Yet, no such project is truly single-handed; every designer
owes a debt of gratitude to a large number of people who lent him
their advice, their assistance, and their sympathy.

As so many authors do, I must give a great deal of credit to my
wife Kathy. I never made a big decision without consulting her
first. She gave me valuable advice on almost every aspect of the
program, helped with the images for the title page, and even
posed for the picture of the anti-nuclear protester. Most important
of all, she hung in there and supported me in the hard times when
we faced the possibility of bankruptcy and loss of our home over
this stupid game.

There are numerous other people who made their own contribu-
tions. In no particular order, these are Dale Yocum, Eric Goldberg,
Gregg Williams, George Rosato, Steve Axelrod, Jim Warren, Steve
Jasik, Scott Knaster, Joe Miller, and Tom Maremaa. Each of these
people made a contribution that was in some way crucial to the
progress of the game. Had any one of these people failed to offer
his assistance so generously, Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition
might not have seen the light of day.

[page 88]

(BLANK)

[page 89]

A great deal of research went into this game. Players who want to
follow up on some of the facts and ideas presented in the game
are encouraged to consult some of these books that I read as
part of my research effort:

White House Years and Years of Upheaval by Henry Kissinger,
Little Brown and Company, Boston, 1979 and 1982. Whether or
not you agree with Dr. Kissinger's policies, you will find these two
books immensely informative on the workings of superpower
diplomacy. Fascinating reading, highly recommended.

How to Make War, by James F. Dunnigan, Morrow, New York, 1982.
An excellent description of the mechanics of modern warfare.

A Quick and Dirty Guide to War, by James F. Dunnigan and Austin
Bay, Morrow, New York, 1985. Subtitled "Briefings on Present and
Potential Wars," this book is loaded with solid information on the
wars going on around the world. I only wish it had been published
when I was first designing Balance of Power.

World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators, by Charles
Lewis Taylor and David A. Jodice, Yale University Press, New
Haven, 1983. A two-volume compilation of numbers about the
nations of the world. This is a scholarly work, not for general
readers. Nevertheless, the numbers are fascinating.

The War Atlas, by Michael Kidron and Dan Smith, Simon and
Schuster, New York, 1983. Forty multi-colored maps showing the
factors affecting war and peace in the world of the 1980's. The
strong graphics make esoteric factors more understandable. This
book was the inspiration for the map-intensive display of both
editions of Balance of Power. I only wish I had as many colors as
they do.

The State of the World Atlas, by Michael Kidron and Ronald Segal,
Simon and Schuster, New York, 1981. Similar to The War Atlas,
but more general in the themes it addresses: Natural Resources,
Economy, Government, Society, etc.

[page 90]

What About the Russians - and Nuclear War?, by Ground Zero,
Pocket Books, New York, 1983. A balanced and careful discussion
of the Soviet Union - its people, government, history, and
psychology - and how these factors affect Soviet nuclear policy.
Recommended reading.

The Causes of Wars, by Michael Howard, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, 1984. A series of essays by a noted historian. Thought-
provoking but somewhat advanced for the general reader.

The East-West Strategic Balance, by T. B. Millar, George Allen &
Unwin, London, 1981. A region-by-region analysis of the geopoliti-
cal positions and strengths of the two superpowers.

The War Trap, by Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1981. A theoretical work that attempts to establish a
mathematically rigorous theory explaining how seemingly reason-
able national policies tend to trap nations into wars. Lots of 
equations for you math types. In the end, I elected not to use the
very impressive mathematical results; I just couldn't work them in.

An Atlas of World Affairs, Seventh Edition, by Andrew Boyd,
Methuen, London and New York, 1983. Covers each region of the
world, discussing its political issues and how it affects the global
equation. Not as insightful as Dunnigan's book but a good
second opinion.

An Atlas of African Affairs, by leuan LL. Griffiths, Methuen, 1984.
A similar treatment focusing on Africa and its problems.

Nuclear War in the 1980's?, by Christopher Chant and Ian Hogg,
Harper and Row, New York, 1983. Lots of colorful pictures of
rockets, guns, airplanes, and so forth. Some elementary informa-
tion on the mechanics of nuclear war. Average text entry is only
one page long. Get this for your teenager.

World View 1982, South End Press, Boston, 1982. "An economic
and geopolitical yearbook" with a decidedly left-wing slant.
Americans who do not understand European leftist anxieties
about American policies should read this with an open
but not gullible mind.

The Global 2000 Report to the President, Penguin Books,
New York, 1982. Lots and lots of hard data on declining resources
of all kinds.

[page 91]

The Soviet Estimate, by John Prados, The Dial Press, New
York, 1982. A history of American assessment of Russian military
strength. We always seemed to overestimate them.

Inside the Soviet Army, by Viktor Suvorov, Macmillan, New York,
1982. A defector talks about how the Soviet Army functions. Scary
business; these people are not sweetie-pies!

The Nuclear Delusion, by George F. Kennan, Pantheon, 1982. For
some reason I didn't get much out of this book.

The Wizards of Armageddon, by Fred Kaplan, Simon and Schuster,
New York, 1983. The story of the think tank people who developed
the strategies for nuclear war. An interesting exposition of how our
thinking on nuclear war has developed. These people figured out
how to fight nuclear war without ever asking why we should fight;
that wasn't their job, I suppose.

Nuclear Proliferation Today, by Leonard S. Spector, Vintage Books,
New York, 1984. I didn't include proliferation in the game, and I'm
glad I didn't - you'd never win! This book should scare you. Lots of
detailed information on how and why the nuclear genie is out of
the bag.

America's War Machine, by Tom Gervasi, Grove Press, New York,
1984. The "Whole Earth Catalog" of weapons systems. A strong
anti-militaristic tone pervades the book.

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